Fredholm operator

In mathematics, Fredholm operators are certain operators that arise in the Fredholm theory of integral equations. They are named in honour of Erik Ivar Fredholm. By definition, a Fredholm operator is a bounded linear operator T : X → Y between two Banach spaces with finite-dimensional kernel $\ker T$ and finite-dimensional (algebraic) cokernel $\mathrm{coker}T=Y/\mathrm{ran}T$, and with closed range $\mathrm{ran}T$. The last condition is actually redundant.

The index of a Fredholm operator is the integer

$\mathrm{ind}T:=\dim \ker T-\mathrm{codim}\mathrm{ran}T$

or in other words,

$\mathrm{ind}T:=\dim \ker T-\dim \mathrm{coker}T.$

Properties

Intuitively, Fredholm operators are those operators that are invertible "if finite-dimensional effects are ignored." The formally correct statement follows. A bounded operator $T:X\to Y$ between Banach spaces $X$ and $Y$ is Fredholm if and only if it is invertible modulo compact operators, i.e., if there exists a bounded linear operator

$S:Y\to X$

such that

${\mathrm{I}\mathrm{d}}_X-ST\text{and}{\mathrm{I}\mathrm{d}}_Y-TS$

are compact operators on $X$ and $Y$ respectively.

If a Fredholm operator is modified slightly, it stays Fredholm and its index remains the same. Formally: The set of Fredholm operators from $X$ to $Y$ is open in the Banach space $L(X,Y)$ of bounded linear operators, equipped with the operator norm, and the index is locally constant. More precisely, if $T_0$ is Fredholm from $X$ to $Y$, there exists $\epsilon >0$ such that every $T$ in $L(X,Y)$ with $||T-T_0||<\epsilon$ is Fredholm, with the same index as that of $T_0$

When $T$ is Fredholm from $X$ to $Y$ and $U$ Fredholm from $Y$ to $Z$, then the composition $U\circ T$ is Fredholm from $X$ to $Z$ and

$\mathrm{ind}(U\circ T)=\mathrm{ind}(U)+\mathrm{ind}(T).$

When $T$ is Fredholm, the transpose (or adjoint) operator $T^{\prime }$ is Fredholm from $Y^{\prime }$ to $X^{\prime }$, and $\text{ind}(T^{\prime })=-\text{ind}(T)$. When $X$ and $Y$ are Hilbert spaces, the same conclusion holds for the Hermitian adjoint $T^{\ast }$.

When $T$ is Fredholm and $K$ a compact operator, then $T+K$ is Fredholm. The index of $T$ remains unchanged under such a compact perturbation of $T$. This follows from the fact that the index $\text{ind}(T+sK)$ is an integer defined for every $s$ in $[0,1]$, and $\text{ind}(T+sK)$ is locally constant, hence $\text{ind}(T)=\text{ind}(T+sK)$.

Invariance by perturbation is true for larger classes than the class of compact operators. For example, when $U$ is Fredholm and $T$ a strictly singular operator, then $T+U$ is Fredholm with the same index. The class of inessential operators, which properly contains the class of strictly singular operators, is the "perturbation class" for Fredholm operators. This means an operator $T\in B(X,Y)$ is inessential if and only if $T+U$ is Fredholm for every Fredholm operator $U\in B(X,Y)$.

Examples

Let $X$ and $Y$ be Hilbert spaces. If $T:X\to Y$ is Fredholm, then we have a decomposition:$$X=\ker T\oplus (\ker T{)}^{\perp },Y=\mathrm{ran}T\oplus (\mathrm{ran}T{)}^{\perp }$$$T$ is a bicontinuous bijection between $(\ker T{)}^{\perp },\mathrm{ran}T$, and for it to be Fredholm, both $\ker T,(\mathrm{ran}T{)}^{\perp }$ must be finite-dimensional. By picking an appropriate orthonormal basis, $T$ has a matrix representation $\left[\begin{array}{cc}{0}_{\dim \mathrm{coker}T\times \dim \ker T}& 0\\ 0& \ddots \end{array}\right]$.

Let $H$ be a Hilbert space with an orthonormal basis $\{e_n\}$ indexed by the non negative integers. The unilateral shift operator S on H is defined by

$S(e_n)=e_{n+1},n\ge 0.$

This operator S is injective (actually, isometric) and has a closed range of codimension 1, hence S is Fredholm with $\mathrm{ind}(S)=-1$. The powers $S^k$, $k\ge 0$, are Fredholm with index $-k$. The adjoint S* is the left shift,

$S^{\ast }(e_0)=0,S^{\ast }(e_n)=e_{n-1},n\ge 1.$

The left shift S* is Fredholm with index 1.

If H is the classical Hardy space $H^2(𝐓)$ on the unit circle T in the complex plane, then the shift operator with respect to the orthonormal basis of complex exponentials

$e_n:{\mathrm{e}}^{\mathrm{i}t}\in 𝐓\mapsto {\mathrm{e}}^{\mathrm{i}nt},n\ge 0,$

is the multiplication operator M_φ with the function $\phi =e_1$. More generally, let φ be a complex continuous function on T that does not vanish on $𝐓$, and let T_φ denote the Toeplitz operator with symbol φ, equal to multiplication by φ followed by the orthogonal projection $P:L^2(𝐓)\to H^2(𝐓)$:

$T_{\phi }:f\in H^2(\mathrm{T})\mapsto P(f\phi )\in H^2(\mathrm{T}).$

Then T_φ is a Fredholm operator on $H^2(𝐓)$, with index related to the winding number around 0 of the closed path $t\in [0,2\pi ]\mapsto \phi (e^{it})$: the index of T_φ, as defined in this article, is the opposite of this winding number.

Applications

Any elliptic operator on a closed manifold can be extended to a Fredholm operator. The use of Fredholm operators in partial differential equations is an abstract form of the parametrix method.

The Atiyah-Singer index theorem gives a topological characterization of the index of certain operators on manifolds.

The Atiyah-Jänich theorem identifies the K-theory K(X) of a compact topological space X with the set of homotopy classes of continuous maps from X to the space of Fredholm operators H→H, where H is the separable Hilbert space and the set of these operators carries the operator norm.

Generalizations

Semi-Fredholm operators

A bounded linear operator T is called semi-Fredholm if its range is closed and at least one of $\ker T$, $\mathrm{coker}T$ is finite-dimensional. For a semi-Fredholm operator, the index is defined by

$\mathrm{ind}T=\{\begin{array}{cc}+\mathrm{\infty },& \dim \ker T=\mathrm{\infty };\\ \dim \ker T-\dim \mathrm{coker}T,& \dim \ker T+\dim \mathrm{coker}T<\mathrm{\infty };\\ -\mathrm{\infty },& \dim \mathrm{coker}T=\mathrm{\infty }.\end{array}$

Unbounded operators

One may also define unbounded Fredholm operators. Let X and Y be two Banach spaces.

1. The closed linear operator $T:X\to Y$ is called Fredholm if its domain $𝔇(T)$ is dense in $X$, its range is closed, and both kernel and cokernel of T are finite-dimensional.
2. $T:X\to Y$ is called semi-Fredholm if its domain $𝔇(T)$ is dense in $X$, its range is closed, and either kernel or cokernel of T (or both) is finite-dimensional.

As it was noted above, the range of a closed operator is closed as long as the cokernel is finite-dimensional (Edmunds and Evans, Theorem I.3.2).

References

• D.E. Edmunds and W.D. Evans (1987), Spectral theory and differential operators, Oxford University Press. Template:ISBN.
• A. G. Ramm, "A Simple Proof of the Fredholm Alternative and a Characterization of the Fredholm Operators", American Mathematical Monthly, 108 (2001) p. 855 (NB: In this paper the word "Fredholm operator" refers to "Fredholm operator of index 0").
• Template:Mathworld
• Template:Springer
• Bruce K. Driver, "Compact and Fredholm Operators and the Spectral Theorem", Analysis Tools with Applications, Chapter 35, pp. 579–600.
• Robert C. McOwen, "Fredholm theory of partial differential equations on complete Riemannian manifolds", Pacific J. Math. 87, no. 1 (1980), 169–185.
• Tomasz Mrowka, A Brief Introduction to Linear Analysis: Fredholm Operators, Geometry of Manifolds, Fall 2004 (Massachusetts Institute of Technology: MIT OpenCouseWare)