Americium-241

Americium-241 (Template:SupAm, Am-241) is an isotope of americium. Like all isotopes of americium, it is radioactive, with a half-life of Template:Val. Template:SupAm is the most common isotope of americium as well as the most prevalent isotope of americium in nuclear waste. It is commonly found in ionization type smoke detectors and is a potential fuel for long-lifetime radioisotope thermoelectric generators (RTGs). Its common parent nuclides are [[beta decay|βTemplate:Sup]] from Template:SupPu, EC from Template:SupCm, and α from Template:SupBk. Template:SupAm is not fissile, but is fissionable, and the critical mass of a bare sphere is Template:Convert and a sphere diameter of Template:Convert.Template:R Americium-241 has a specific activity of Template:Convert.Template:R It is commonly found in the form of americium-241 dioxide (Template:SupAmOTemplate:Sub). This isotope also has one meta state, Template:SupAm, with an excitation energy of Template:Convert and a half-life of Template:Val. The presence of Template:SupAm in plutonium is determined by the original concentration of plutonium-241 and the sample age. Because of the low penetration of alpha radiation, americium-241 only poses a health risk when ingested or inhaled. Older samples of plutonium containing Template:SupPu contain a buildup of Template:SupAm. Chemical removal of americium-241 from reworked plutonium (e.g., during reworking of plutonium pits) may be required in some cases.

Nucleosynthesis

Americium-241 has been produced in small quantities in nuclear reactors for decades, and many kilograms of Template:SupAm have been accumulated by now.Template:R Nevertheless, since it was first offered for sale in 1962, its price, about Template:US$ per gram of Template:SupAm, remains almost unchanged owing to the very complex separation procedure.Template:R

Americium-241 is not synthesized directly from uranium – the most common reactor material – but from plutonium-239 (Template:SupPu). The latter needs to be produced first, according to the following nuclear process:

${}^{\mathrm{2}\mathrm{3}\mathrm{8}}{}_{\mathrm{9}\mathrm{2}}\mathrm{U}\stackrel{(n,\gamma )}{\to }{}_{\mathrm{9}\mathrm{2}}^{\mathrm{2}\mathrm{3}\mathrm{9}}\mathrm{U}\underset{23.5min}{\overset{{\beta }^{-}}{\to }}{}_{\mathrm{9}\mathrm{3}}^{\mathrm{2}\mathrm{3}\mathrm{9}}\mathrm{N}\mathrm{p}\underset{2.3565d}{\overset{{\beta }^{-}}{\to }}{}_{\mathrm{9}\mathrm{4}}^{\mathrm{2}\mathrm{3}\mathrm{9}}\mathrm{P}\mathrm{u}$

The capture of two neutrons by Template:SupPu (a so-called (n,γ) reaction), followed by a β-decay, results in Template:SupAm:

${}^{\mathrm{2}\mathrm{3}\mathrm{9}}{}_{\mathrm{9}\mathrm{4}}\mathrm{P}\mathrm{u}\stackrel{2(n,\gamma )}{\to }{}_{\mathrm{9}\mathrm{4}}^{\mathrm{2}\mathrm{4}\mathrm{1}}\mathrm{P}\mathrm{u}\underset{14.35yr}{\overset{{\beta }^{-}}{\to }}{}_{\mathrm{9}\mathrm{5}}^{\mathrm{2}\mathrm{4}\mathrm{1}}\mathrm{A}\mathrm{m}$

The plutonium present in spent nuclear fuel contains about 12% of Template:SupPu. Because it converts to Template:SupAm, Template:SupPu can be extracted and may be used to generate further Template:SupAm. However, this process is rather slow: half of the original amount of Template:SupPu decays to Template:SupAm after about 14 years, and the Template:SupAm amount reaches a maximum after 70 years.Template:R

The obtained Template:SupAm can be used for generating heavier americium isotopes by further neutron capture inside a nuclear reactor. In a light water reactor (LWR), 79% of neutron captures on Template:SupAm convert to Template:SupAm and 10% to its nuclear isomer Template:SupAm:

79%:   ${}^{\mathrm{2}\mathrm{4}\mathrm{1}}{}_{\mathrm{9}\mathrm{5}}\mathrm{A}\mathrm{m}\stackrel{(n,\gamma )}{\to }{}_{\mathrm{9}\mathrm{5}}^{\mathrm{2}\mathrm{4}\mathrm{2}}\mathrm{A}\mathrm{m}$

Decay

Template:MainAmericium-241 decays mainly via alpha decay, with a weak gamma ray byproduct. The α-decay is shown as follows:

${}^{\mathrm{2}\mathrm{4}\mathrm{1}}{}_{\mathrm{9}\mathrm{5}}\mathrm{A}\mathrm{m}\stackrel{432.2y}{⟶}{}_{\mathrm{9}\mathrm{3}}^{\mathrm{2}\mathrm{3}\mathrm{7}}\mathrm{N}\mathrm{p}\mathrm{+}{}_{\mathrm{2}}^{\mathrm{4}}{\mathrm{\alpha }}^{\mathrm{2}\mathrm{+}}\mathrm{+}\mathrm{\gamma }\mathrm{5}\mathrm{9}\mathrm{.}\mathrm{5}\mathrm{4}\mathrm{0}\mathrm{9}\mathrm{k}\mathrm{e}\mathrm{V}$

The α-decay energies are Template:Convert for Template:Percentage of the time (the one which is widely accepted for standard α-decay energy), Template:Convert for 13% of the time, and Template:Convert for the remaining 2%. The γ-ray energy is Template:Convert for the most part, with little amounts of other energies such as Template:Convert, Template:Convert and Template:Convert.

The second most common type of decay that americium-241 undergoes is spontaneous fission, with a branching ratio of 3.6×10Template:Sup and happening 1.2 times a second per gram of Template:SupAm. It is written as such (the asterisk denotes an excited nucleus):

${}^{\mathrm{2}\mathrm{4}\mathrm{1}}{}_{\mathrm{9}\mathrm{5}}\mathrm{A}\mathrm{m}\mathrm{⟶}{}_{\mathrm{9}\mathrm{5}}^{\mathrm{2}\mathrm{4}\mathrm{1}}\mathrm{A}{\mathrm{m}}^{\mathrm{*}}\mathrm{⟶}{3}_{\mathrm{0}}^{\mathrm{1}}\mathrm{n}\mathrm{+}\mathrm{f}\mathrm{i}\mathrm{s}\mathrm{s}\mathrm{i}\mathrm{o}\mathrm{n}\mathrm{p}\mathrm{r}\mathrm{o}\mathrm{d}\mathrm{u}\mathrm{c}\mathrm{t}\mathrm{s}\mathrm{+}\mathrm{e}\mathrm{n}\mathrm{e}\mathrm{r}\mathrm{g}\mathrm{y}\mathrm{(}\mathrm{\gamma }\mathrm{)}$

The least common (rarest) type of decay for americium-241 is Template:SimpleNuclide cluster decay, with a branching ratio of less than 7.4×10⁻¹⁶. It is written as follows:

${}^{\mathrm{2}\mathrm{4}\mathrm{1}}{}_{\mathrm{9}\mathrm{5}}\mathrm{A}\mathrm{m}\underset{\mathrm{8}\mathrm{1}}{\overset{\mathrm{2}\mathrm{0}\mathrm{7}}{⟶}}\mathrm{T}\mathrm{l}{+}_{\mathrm{1}\mathrm{4}}^{\mathrm{3}\mathrm{4}}\mathrm{S}\mathrm{i}$

Applications

Ionization-type smoke detector

Template:MainAmericium-241 is the only synthetic isotope to have found its way into the household, where the most common type of smoke detector (the ionization-type) uses Template:Chem (americium-241 dioxide) as its source of ionizing radiation. This isotope is preferred over Template:SimpleNuclide because it emits 5Template:Nbsptimes more alpha particles and relatively little harmful gamma radiation. With its half-life of Template:Val, the americium in a smoke detector decreases and includes about 3% neptunium after Template:Val, and about 5% after Template:Val. The amount of americium in a typical new smoke detector is Template:Convert (about 1/3000 the weight of a small grain of sand) with an activity of Template:Convert. Some old industrial smoke detectors (notably from the Pyrotronics Corporation) can contain up to Template:Convert. The amount of Template:SupAm declines slowly as it decays into neptunium-237 (Template:SupNp), a different transuranic element with a much longer half-life (about Template:Val). The radiated alpha particles pass through an ionization chamber, an air-filled space between two electrodes, which allows a small, constant electric current to pass between the capacitor plates due to the radiation ionizing the air space between. Any smoke that enters the chamber blocks/absorbs some of the alpha particles from freely passing through and reduces the ionization and therefore causes a drop in the current. The alarm's circuitry detects this drop in the current and as a result, triggers the piezoelectric buzzer to sound. Compared to the alternative optical smoke detector, the ionization smoke detector is cheaper and can detect particles which are too small to produce significant light scattering. However, it is more prone to false alarms.

Manufacturing process

The process for making the americium used in the buttons on ionization-type smoke detectors begins with americium dioxide. The Template:SupAmOTemplate:Sub is thoroughly mixed with gold, shaped into a briquette, and fused by pressure and heat at over Template:Convert. A backing of silver and a front covering of gold (or an alloy of gold or palladium) are applied to the briquette and sealed by hot forging. The briquette is then processed through several stages of cold rolling to achieve the desired thickness and levels of radiation emission. The final thickness is about Template:Convert, with the gold cover representing about one percent of the thickness. The resulting foil strip, which is about Template:Convert wide, is cut into sections Template:Convert long. The sources are punched out of the foil strip. Each disc, about Template:Convert in diameter, is mounted in a metal holder, usually made of aluminium. The holder is the housing, which is the majority of what is seen on the button. The thin rim on the holder is rolled over to completely seal the cut edge around the disc.

RTG (radioisotope thermoelectric generator) power generation

As Template:SupAm has a roughly similar half-life to Template:SupPu (432.2 years vs. 87 years), it has been proposed as an active isotope of radioisotope thermoelectric generators, for use in spacecraft. Even though americium-241 produces less heat and electricity than plutonium-238 (the power yield is Template:Convert for Template:SupAm vs. Template:Convert for Template:SupPu) and its radiation poses a greater threat to humans owing to gamma and neutron emission, it has advantages for long duration missions with its significantly longer half-life. The European Space Agency is working on RTGs based on americium-241 for its space probes as a result of the global shortage of plutonium-238 and easy access to americium-241 in Europe from nuclear waste reprocessing.

Its shielding requirements in an RTG are the second lowest of all possible isotopes: only Template:SupPu requires less. An advantage over Template:SupPu is that it is produced as nuclear waste and is nearly isotopically pure. Prototype designs of Template:SupAm RTGs expect 2–2.2 WTemplate:Sub/kg for 5–50 WTemplate:Sub RTGs design, putting Template:SupAm RTGs at parity with Template:SupPu RTGs within that power range, as the vast majority of the mass of an RTG is not the isotopes, but the thermoelectrics, radiators, and isotope containment mass.

Neutron source

Oxides of Template:SupAm pressed with beryllium can be very efficient neutron sources, since they emit alpha particles during radioactive decay:

${}^{\mathrm{2}\mathrm{4}\mathrm{1}}{}_{\mathrm{9}\mathrm{5}}\mathrm{A}\mathrm{m}\stackrel{432.2y}{⟶}{}_{\mathrm{9}\mathrm{3}}^{\mathrm{2}\mathrm{3}\mathrm{7}}\mathrm{N}\mathrm{p}\mathrm{+}{}_{\mathrm{2}}^{\mathrm{4}}{\mathrm{\alpha }}^{\mathrm{2}\mathrm{+}}\mathrm{+}\mathrm{\gamma }\mathrm{5}\mathrm{9}\mathrm{.}\mathrm{5}\mathrm{k}\mathrm{e}\mathrm{V}$

Here americium acts as the alpha source, and beryllium produces neutrons owing to its large cross-section for the (α,n) nuclear reaction:

${}^{\mathrm{9}}{}_{\mathrm{4}}\mathrm{B}\mathrm{e}\mathrm{+}{}_{\mathrm{2}}^{\mathrm{4}}{\mathrm{\alpha }}^{\mathrm{2}\mathrm{+}}\mathrm{⟶}{}_{\mathrm{6}}^{\mathrm{1}\mathrm{2}}\mathrm{C}\mathrm{+}{}_{\mathrm{0}}^{\mathrm{1}}\mathrm{n}\mathrm{+}\mathrm{\gamma }$

The most widespread use of Template:Chem neutron sources is a neutron probe – a device used to measure the quantity of water present in soil, as well as moisture/density for quality control in highway construction. Template:SupAm neutron sources are also used in well logging applications, as well as in neutron radiography, tomography, and other radiochemical investigations.Template:R

Production of other elements

Chart displaying actinides and their decays and transmutations.

Americium-241 is sometimes used as a starting material for the production of other transuranic elements and transactinides – for example, neutron bombardment of Template:SupAm yields Template:SupAm:

${}^{\mathrm{2}\mathrm{4}\mathrm{1}}{}_{\mathrm{9}\mathrm{5}}\mathrm{A}\mathrm{m}\stackrel{(n,\gamma )}{\to }{}_{\mathrm{9}\mathrm{5}}^{\mathrm{2}\mathrm{4}\mathrm{2}}\mathrm{A}\mathrm{m}$

From there, 82.7% of Template:SupAm decays to Template:SupCm and 17.3% to Template:SupPu:

82.7% → ${}^{\mathrm{2}\mathrm{4}\mathrm{1}}{}_{\mathrm{9}\mathrm{5}}\mathrm{A}\mathrm{m}\stackrel{(n,\gamma )}{\to }{}_{\mathrm{9}\mathrm{5}}^{\mathrm{2}\mathrm{4}\mathrm{2}}\mathrm{A}\mathrm{m}\underset{16.02h}{\overset{{\beta }^{-}}{\to }}{}_{\mathrm{9}\mathrm{6}}^{\mathrm{2}\mathrm{4}\mathrm{2}}\mathrm{C}\mathrm{m}$

17.3%→ ${}^{\mathrm{2}\mathrm{4}\mathrm{1}}{}_{\mathrm{9}\mathrm{5}}\mathrm{A}\mathrm{m}\stackrel{(n,\gamma )}{\to }{}_{\mathrm{9}\mathrm{5}}^{\mathrm{2}\mathrm{4}\mathrm{2}}\mathrm{A}\mathrm{m}\underset{16.02h}{\overset{{\beta }^{+}}{\to }}{}_{\mathrm{9}\mathrm{4}}^{\mathrm{2}\mathrm{4}\mathrm{2}}\mathrm{P}\mathrm{u}$

In the nuclear reactor, Template:SupAm is also up-converted by neutron capture to Template:SupAm and Template:SupAm, which transforms by β-decay to Template:SupCm:

${}^{\mathrm{2}\mathrm{4}\mathrm{2}}{}_{\mathrm{9}\mathrm{5}}\mathrm{A}\mathrm{m}\stackrel{(n,\gamma )}{\to }{}_{\mathrm{9}\mathrm{5}}^{\mathrm{2}\mathrm{4}\mathrm{3}}\mathrm{A}\mathrm{m}\stackrel{(n,\gamma )}{\to }{}_{\mathrm{9}\mathrm{5}}^{\mathrm{2}\mathrm{4}\mathrm{4}}\mathrm{A}\mathrm{m}\underset{10.1h}{\overset{{\beta }^{-}}{\to }}{}_{\mathrm{9}\mathrm{6}}^{\mathrm{2}\mathrm{4}\mathrm{4}}\mathrm{C}\mathrm{m}$

Irradiation of Template:SupAm by [[carbon-12|Template:SupC]] or Template:SupNe ions yields einsteinium-253 (Template:SupEs) or dubnium-263 (Template:SupDb), respectively. Furthermore, the element berkelium (Template:SupBk isotope) had been first intentionally produced and identified by bombarding Template:SupAm with alpha particles, in 1949, by the same Berkeley group, using the same Template:Convert cyclotron that had been used for many previous experiments.Template:R

Spectrometer

Americium-241 has been used as a portable source of both gamma rays and alpha particles for a number of medical and industrial uses. The Template:Convert gamma ray emissions from Template:SupAm in such sources can be used for indirect analysis of materials in radiography and X-ray fluorescence spectroscopy, as well as for quality control in fixed nuclear density gauges and nuclear densometers. For example, this isotope has been employed to gauge glass thickness to help create flat glass.Template:R Americium-241 is also suitable for calibration of gamma-ray spectrometers in the low-energy range, since its spectrum consists of nearly a single peak and negligible Compton continuum (at least three orders of magnitude lower intensity).

Medicine

Gamma rays from americium-241 have been used to provide passive diagnosis of thyroid function. This medical application is now obsolete. Americium-241's gamma rays can provide reasonable quality radiographs, with a 10-minute exposure time. Template:SupAm radiographs have only been taken experimentally due to the long exposure time which increases the effective dose to living tissue. Reducing exposure duration reduces the chance of ionization events causing damage to cells and DNA, and is a critical component in the "time, distance, shielding" maxim used in radiation protection.

Hazards

Template:Disputed section Americium-241 has the same general hazards as other americium isotopes: it is both extremely toxic and radioactive. Though α-particles can be stopped by a sheet of paper, there are serious health concerns for ingestion of α-emitters. Americium and its isotopes are also very chemically toxic as well, in the form of heavy-metal toxicity. As little as Template:Convert is the maximum permissible body burden for Template:SupAm.

Americium-241 is an α-emitter with a weak γ-ray byproduct. Safely handling americium-241 requires knowing and following proper safety precautions, as without them it would be extremely dangerous. Its specific gamma dose constant is Template:Val or Template:Val at Template:Convert.

If consumed, americium-241 is excreted within a few days and only 0.05% is absorbed in the blood. From there, roughly 45% of it goes to the liver and 45% to the bones, and the remaining 10% is excreted. The uptake to the liver depends on the individual and increases with age. In the bones, americium is first deposited over cortical and trabecular surfaces and slowly redistributes over the bone with time. The biological half-life of Template:SupAm is Template:Val in the bones and Template:Val in the liver, whereas in the gonads (testicles and ovaries) it remains permanently; in all these organs, americium promotes formation of cancer cells as a result of its radioactivity.

A container of Americium-241 in a smoke detector

Americium-241 often enters landfills from discarded smoke detectors. The rules associated with the disposal of smoke detectors are relaxed in most jurisdictions. In the U.S., the "Radioactive Boy Scout" David Hahn was able to concentrate americium-241 from smoke detectors after managing to buy a hundred of them at remainder prices and also stealing a few. There have been a few cases of exposure to americium-241, the worst being Harold McCluskey who, at age 64, was exposed to 500 times the occupational standard for americium-241 as a result of an explosion in his lab. McCluskey died at age 75, not as a result of exposure, but of a heart disease which he had before the accident. Americium-241 has also been detected in the oceans as a result of nuclear testing conducted by various nations.

See also

• Isotopes of americium