View source for Serpentinite

{{Short description|Rock formed by transformation of olivine}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2022}}
[[File:Serpentinite sur gneiss.jpg|right|thumb|Serpentinite from the [[Maurienne valley]], [[Savoie]], [[French Alps]]]]
[[File:Serpentinite.JPG|right|thumb|Sample of serpentinite from the [[Golden Gate National Recreation Area]], California, United States]]
[[File:Chromitic serpentinite Styria Province, Austria.jpg|thumb|[[Chromite|Chromitic]] serpentinite ({{convert|7.9|cm|abbr=on}} across), [[Styria]] Province, Austria. [[Protolith]] was a [[Proterozoic]]-Early [[Paleozoic]] [[upper mantle (Earth)|upper mantle]] [[dunite]] [[peridotite]] that has been multiply [[Metamorphic rock|metamorphosed]] during the Devonian, Permian, and Mesozoic.]]
[[File:Folded serpentinite.jpg|thumb|Tightly folded serpentinite from the [[Tux Alps]], [[Austria]]. Closeup view about {{convert|30|×|20|cm|0|abbr=on}}.]]

'''Serpentinite''' is a [[metamorphic rock]] composed predominantly of [[serpentine group]] [[mineral]]s formed by [[serpentinization]] of [[mafic]] or [[ultramafic rock]]s. The ancient origin of the name is uncertain; it may be from the similarity of its texture or color to snake skin.<ref name="Schoenherr-2017">{{cite book|last=Schoenherr|first=Allan A.|title=A Natural History of California: Second Edition|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Zj63DgAAQBAJ&pg=PA35|access-date=6 May 2017|date=2017-07-11|publisher=Univ of California Press|isbn=9780520295117|pages=35–}}</ref> Greek pharmacologist [[Pedanius Dioscorides|Dioscorides]] (AD 50) recommended eating this rock to prevent snakebite.<ref name="Faust-1962">{{cite journal |title=The Serpentine-Group Minerals |journal=USGS Numbered Series |year=1962 |last1=Faust |first1=George T. |last2=Fahey |first2=Joseph J. |issue=384–A |page=3 |doi=10.3133/pp384A |bibcode=1962usgs.rept....4F |url=https://pubs.usgs.gov/pp/0384a/report.pdf |accessdate=2024-09-27 |quote=The Term Serpentine }}</ref>

Serpentinite has been called ''serpentine'' or ''serpentine rock'', particularly in older geological texts and in wider cultural settings.<ref name="Merriam-Webster">{{cite web | url=https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/serpentine | title=serpentine | publisher=Merriam-Webster | work=Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary | access-date=6 March 2022}}</ref><ref name="CACode">California Government Code § 425.2; ''see'' {{cite web |url=http://www.leginfo.ca.gov/cgi-bin/displaycode?section=gov&group=00001-01000&file=420-429.8 |title=CA Codes (Gov:420-429.8) |access-date=2009-12-24 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090628233244/http://www.leginfo.ca.gov/cgi-bin/displaycode?section=gov&group=00001-01000&file=420-429.8 |archive-date=28 June 2009 }}</ref><ref name="Oakeshott-1968">{{cite journal | url=https://archives.datapages.com/data/specpubs/structu1/data/a153/a153/0001/0200/0228.htm | title=Diapiric Structures in Diablo Range, California | last=Oakeshott | first=G.B. | journal=AAPG Special Volume M8:Diapirism and Diapirs | date=1968 | volume=153 | pages=228–243}}</ref><ref name="Flett-1913">{{cite journal | url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0016787813800089 | title=The geology of the lizard | last=Flett | first=J.S. | journal=Proceedings of the Geologists' Association | date=1913 | volume=24 | issue=3 | pages=118–133 | doi=10.1016/S0016-7878(13)80008-9| bibcode=1913PrGA...24..118F }}</ref><ref name="González-Mancera-2003">{{cite journal | url=https://link.springer.com/article/10.1023/B:HYPE.0000003765.32151.3b | title=Mössbauer Study of Serpentine Minerals in the Ultramafic Body of Tehuitzingo, Southern Mexico | first1=G. | last1=González-Mancera | first2=F. |last2=Ortega-Gutiérrez | first3=N.E. | last3=Nava | first4=H.S. | last4=Arriola | journal=Hyperfine Interactions | date=2003 | volume=148 | issue=1–4 | pages=61–71 | doi=10.1023/B:HYPE.0000003765.32151.3b| bibcode=2003HyInt.148...61G | s2cid=96761317 }}</ref>

Most of the chemical reactions necessary to synthesize [[acetyl-CoA]], essential to basic biochemical pathways of life, take place during serpentinization. Serpentinite thermal vents are therefore considered a candidate for the origin of life on Earth.

== Formation and mineralogy ==
{{main article|Serpentinization}}
Serpentinite is formed by near to complete [[serpentinization]] of [[mafic]] or [[ultramafic rock]]s.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Introduction to Mineralogy and Petrology |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/book/9780128205853/introduction-to-mineralogy-and-petrology |access-date=2022-11-20 |isbn=9780128205853 |language=en |last1=Haldar |first1=Swapan Kumar |date=27 July 2020 |publisher=Elsevier Science }}</ref> Serpentinite is formed from mafic rock that is [[mineral hydration|hydrated]] by [[carbon dioxide]]-deficient [[sea water]] that is pressed into the rock at great depths below the ocean floor.{{sfn|Moody|1976|p=136}} This occurs at [[mid-ocean ridges]] and in the [[forearc]] mantle of [[subduction zone]]s.<ref name="Roberts-2012" /><ref name="Albers-2021">{{Cite journal |last1=Albers |first1=Elmar |last2=Bach |first2=Wolfgang |last3=Pérez-Gussinyé |first3=Marta |last4=McCammon |first4=Catherine |last5=Frederichs |first5=Thomas |date=2021 |title=Serpentinization-Driven H2 Production From Continental Break-Up to Mid-Ocean Ridge Spreading: Unexpected High Rates at the West Iberia Margin |journal=Frontiers in Earth Science |volume=9 |page=487 |doi=10.3389/feart.2021.673063 |bibcode=2021FrEaS...9..487A |issn=2296-6463|doi-access=free }}</ref>

The final mineral composition of serpentinite is usually dominated by [[antigorite]],  [[lizardite]], [[chrysotile]] (minerals of the [[serpentine subgroup]]), and [[magnetite]] ({{Chem2|link=Magnetite|Fe3O4}}), with [[brucite]] ({{Chem2|link=Brucite|Mg(OH)2}}) less commonly present. Lizardite, chrysotile, and antigorite all have approximately the formula {{chem2|Mg3(Si2O5)(OH)4}} or {{chem2|(Mg(2+), Fe(2+))3Si2O5(OH)4}}, but differ in minor components and in form.<ref name="Roberts-2012">{{Cite book|last1=Roberts|first1=B. A.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Abb1CAAAQBAJ&dq=Lizardite&pg=PA11|title=The Ecology of Areas with Serpentinized Rocks: A World View|last2=Proctor|first2=J.|date=2012-12-06|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|isbn=978-94-011-3722-5|language=en|page=8}}</ref> Accessory minerals, present in small quantities, include [[awaruite]], other native metal minerals, and [[sulfide mineral]]s.<ref name="Moody-1976">{{cite journal |last1=Moody |first1=Judith B. |date=April 1976 |title=Serpentinization: a review |journal=Lithos |volume=9 |issue=2 |pages=125–138 |bibcode=1976Litho...9..125M |doi=10.1016/0024-4937(76)90030-X}}</ref>[[Image:Gros Morne moho.jpg|thumb|Ophiolite of the [[Gros Morne National Park]], [[Newfoundland (island)|Newfoundland]]. Ophiolites characteristically have a serpentinite component.]]

=== Hydrogen production ===
The [[serpentinization]] reaction involving the transformation of [[fayalite]] (Fe-end member of [[olivine]]) by water into [[magnetite]] and [[quartz]] also produces molecular [[hydrogen]] {{chem2|H2}} according to the following reaction:
:<chem>3 Fe2SiO4 + 2 H2O -> 2 Fe3O4 + 3 SiO2 + 2 H2</chem>

This reaction closely resembles the [[Schikorr reaction]] also producing hydrogen gas by [[oxidation]] of Fe{{sup|2+}} ions into Fe{{sup|3+}} ions by the protons {{H+}} of water. Two {{H+}} are then reduced into {{chem2|H2}}.

:<chem>3 Fe(OH)2 -> Fe3O4 + 2 H2O + H2</chem>

In the Schikorr reaction, the two {{H+}} reduced into {{chem2|H2}} are these from two {{chem2|OH-}} [[anion]]s, then transformed into two oxide anions ({{chem2|O(2-)}}) directly incorporated into the magnetite [[crystal lattice]] while the water in excess is liberated as a reaction by-product.

Hydrogen produced by the serpentinization reaction is important because it can fuel [[Microbial metabolism|microbial activity]] in the deep subsurface environment.{{cn|date=January 2024}}

=== Hydrothermal vents and mud volcanoes ===
{{Main articles|Hydrothermal vent|Mud volcano}}
[[File:Expl2224 - Flickr - NOAA Photo Library.jpg|thumb|A white [[Carbonate mineral|carbonate]] spire in the [[Lost City Hydrothermal Field|Lost City hydrothermal field]]]]
Deep sea [[hydrothermal vent]]s located on serpentinite close to the axis of [[mid-ocean ridge]]s generally resemble [[black smoker]]s located on [[basalt]], but emit complex [[hydrocarbon]] molecules. The Rainbow field of the [[Mid-Atlantic Ridge]] is an example of such hydrothermal vents. Serpentinization alone cannot provide the heat supply for these vents, which must be driven mostly by [[magmatism]]. However, the [[Lost City Hydrothermal Field]], located off the axis of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, may be driven solely by heat of serpentinization. Its vents are unlike black smokers, emitting relatively cool fluids ({{convert|40 to 75|C||sp=us}}) that are highly [[Alkalinity|alkaline]], high in [[magnesium]], and low in [[hydrogen sulfide]]. The vents build up very large chimneys, up to {{convert|60|m||sp=us}} in height, composed of [[carbonate mineral]]s and brucite. Lush [[Microbial population biology|microbial communities]] are associated with the vents. Though the vents themselves are not composed of serpentinite, they are hosted in serpentinite estimated to have formed at a temperature of about {{convert|200|C||sp=us}}.<ref name="Allen-2004" /> [[Sepiolite]] deposits on mid-ocean ridges may have formed through serpentinite-driven [[Hydrothermal circulation|hydrothermal activity]].<ref name="Mével-2003">{{cite journal |last1=Mével |first1=Catherine |date=September 2003 |title=Serpentinization of abyssal peridotites at mid-ocean ridges |journal=Comptes Rendus Geoscience |volume=335 |issue=10–11 |pages=825–852 |bibcode=2003CRGeo.335..825M |doi=10.1016/j.crte.2003.08.006|url=https://comptes-rendus.academie-sciences.fr/geoscience/articles/10.1016/j.crte.2003.08.006/ }}</ref> However, geologists continue to debate whether serpentinization alone can account for the [[heat flux]] from the Lost City field.<ref name="Allen-2004">{{cite journal |last1=Allen |first1=Douglas E. |last2=Seyfried |first2=W.E. |title=Serpentinization and heat generation: constraints from Lost City and Rainbow hydrothermal systems 1 1Associate editor: J. C. Alt |journal=Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta |date=March 2004 |volume=68 |issue=6 |pages=1347–1354 |doi=10.1016/j.gca.2003.09.003}}</ref>

The [[forearc]] of the [[Mariana Trench|Marianas]] [[subduction]] zone hosts large serpentinite [[mud volcano]]es, which erupt serpentinite mud that rises through [[Fault (geology)|faults]] from the underlying serpentinized forearc [[Mantle (geology)|mantle]]. Study of these mud volcanoes gives insights into subduction processes, and the high [[pH]] fluids emitted at the volcanoes support a [[Microbial consortium|microbial community]].<ref name="Fryer-2012">{{cite journal |last1=Fryer |first1=Patricia |title=Serpentinite Mud Volcanism: Observations, Processes, and Implications |journal=Annual Review of Marine Science |date=15 January 2012 |volume=4 |issue=1 |pages=345–373 |doi=10.1146/annurev-marine-120710-100922 |pmid=22457979 |bibcode=2012ARMS....4..345F |language=en |issn=1941-1405}}</ref><ref name="Albers-2021" />
Experimental drilling into the [[gabbro]] layer of [[oceanic crust]] near mid-ocean ridges has demonstrated the presence of a sparse population of [[Microbial biodegradation|hydrocarbon-degrading]] [[bacteria]]. These may feed on hydrocarbons produced by serpentinization of the underlying [[ultramafic rock]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Mason |first1=Olivia U. |last2=Nakagawa |first2=Tatsunori |last3=Rosner |first3=Martin |last4=Van Nostrand |first4=Joy D. |last5=Zhou |first5=Jizhong |last6=Maruyama |first6=Akihiko |last7=Fisk |first7=Martin R. |last8=Giovannoni |first8=Stephen J. |title=First Investigation of the Microbiology of the Deepest Layer of Ocean Crust |journal=PLOS ONE|date=5 November 2010 |volume=5 |issue=11 |pages=e15399 |pmc=2974637 |  doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0015399|pmid=21079766 |bibcode=2010PLoSO...515399M |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Marshall |first1=Michael |title=Life is found in deepest layer of Earth's crust |url=https://www.newscientist.com/article/mg20827874-800-life-is-found-in-deepest-layer-of-earths-crust/?ignored=irrelevant |access-date=3 December 2021 |work=New Scientist |date=17 November 2010}}</ref>

====Potential 'cradle of life'====
Serpentinite thermal vents are a candidate for the environment in which life on Earth originated.<ref name="Fryer-2012"/> Most of the chemical reactions necessary to synthesize [[acetyl-CoA]], essential to basic biochemical pathways of life, take place during serpentinization.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Martin |first1=William |author-link1=William F. Martin
|last2=Russell |first2=Michael J |author-link2=Michael Russell (scientist)|title=On the origin of biochemistry at an alkaline hydrothermal vent |journal=Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences |date=29 October 2007 |volume=362 |issue=1486 |pages=1887–1926 |doi=10.1098/rstb.2006.1881|pmid=17255002 |pmc=2442388 }}</ref> The sulfide-metal clusters that activate many [[enzyme]]s resemble sulfide minerals formed during serpentinization.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=McCollom |first1=T. M. |last2=Seewald |first2=J. S. |title=Serpentinites, Hydrogen, and Life |journal=Elements |date=1 April 2013 |volume=9 |issue=2 |pages=129–134 |doi=10.2113/gselements.9.2.129 |bibcode=2013Eleme...9..129M |citeseerx=10.1.1.852.2089 |url=https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.852.2089&rep=rep1&type=pdf |access-date=5 September 2021}}</ref>

== Ecology ==
[[File:Landscape, south of New Caledonia.jpg|thumb|upright=1.15|Serpentinite ecosystem in the south of [[New Caledonia]]]]
{{main|Serpentine soil}}
Soil cover over serpentinite [[bedrock]] tends to be thin or absent. [[Soil]] with serpentine is poor in [[calcium]] and other major plant [[nutrient]]s, but rich in elements toxic to plants such as [[chromium]] and [[nickel]].<ref>[http://vulcan.wr.usgs.gov/LivingWith/VolcanicPast/Notes/serpentine.html "CVO Website - Serpentine and serpentinite"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111019015059/http://vulcan.wr.usgs.gov/LivingWith/VolcanicPast/Notes/serpentine.html |date=19 October 2011 }}, ''USGS/NPS Geology in the Parks Website'', September 2001, accessed 27 February 2011.</ref> Some species of plants, such as ''[[Clarkia franciscana]]'' and certain species of [[manzanita]], are adapted to living on serpentinite [[outcrop]]s. However, because serpentinite outcrops are few and isolated, their plant communities are [[ecological island]]s and these distinctive species are often highly endangered.<ref name="PresidioSanFrancisco">{{cite web |title=Serpentinite |url=https://www.nps.gov/prsf/learn/nature/serpentinite.htm |access-date=3 September 2021 |website=Presidio of San Francisco |publisher=National Park Service}}</ref> On the other hand, plant communities adapted to living on the serpentine outcrops of [[New Caledonia]] resist displacement by [[introduced species]] that are poorly adapted to this environment.<ref name="Futura-2004">{{cite web|url=http://www.futura-sciences.com/fr/doc/t/zoologie-1/r/nouvelle-caledonie/d/la-faune-et-la-flore-de-nouvelle-caledonie_468/c3/221/p2/ |title=La flore de Nouvelle-Calédonie – Première partie |website=Futura-sciences.com |date=2004-08-18 |access-date=2013-01-30}}</ref>

[[Serpentine soil]]s are widely distributed on Earth, in part mirroring the distribution of [[ophiolite]]s and other serpentine bearing rocks.<ref>{{Cite journal |title=6 Serpentine Soil Distributions and Environmental Influences |url=https://academic.oup.com/book/41004/chapter-abstract/349244500?redirectedFrom=fulltext |access-date=2022-11-20 |website=academic.oup.com| date=2007 | doi=10.1093/oso/9780195165081.003.0010 | last1=Alexander | first1=Earl B. | last2=Coleman | first2=Roger G. | last3=Keeler-Wolfe | first3=Todd | last4=Harrison | first4=Susan P. | isbn=978-0-19-516508-1 }}</ref> There are outcroppings of serpentine soils in the [[Balkan Peninsula]], [[Turkey]], the island of [[Cyprus]], the [[Alps]], [[Cuba]], and [[New Caledonia]]. In North America, serpentine soils also are present in small but widely distributed areas on the eastern slope of the [[Appalachian Mountains]] in the eastern United States, and in the Pacific Ranges of Oregon and California.{{citation needed|date=July 2022}}

== Occurrences ==
Notable occurrences of serpentinite are found at [[Thetford Mines]], [[Quebec]]; Lake Valhalla, [[New Jersey]]; [[Gila County, Arizona]]; [[Lizard complex]], [[Lizard Point, Cornwall]]; and in localities in Greece, Italy, and other parts of Europe.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Sinkankas |first1=John |title=Mineralogy for amateurs. |date=1964 |publisher=Van Nostrand |isbn=0442276249 |location=Princeton, N.J. |pages=149–480}}</ref> Notable ophiolites containing serpentinite include the [[Semail Ophiolite]] of [[Oman]], the [[Troodos Ophiolite]] of [[Cyprus]], the [[Newfoundland]] ophiolites, and the Main Ophiolite Belt of [[New Guinea]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Philpotts |first1=Anthony R. |last2=Ague |first2=Jay J. |title=Principles of igneous and metamorphic petrology |date=2009 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge, UK |isbn=9780521880060 |edition=2nd |page=371}}</ref>

== Uses ==
[[File:Zwei trinkbecher, zoeblitz.jpg|thumb|Drinking cups, examples of serpentinite-turning from [[Zöblitz]] in the [[Erzgebirgskreis]]]]
[[File:College Hall U Penn.JPG|thumb|College Hall at [[University of Pennsylvania]]]]

=== Decorative stone in architecture and art ===
Serpentine group minerals have a [[Mohs hardness]] of 2.5 to 3.5, so serpentinite is easily [[Carving|carved]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Nesse |first1=William D. |title=Introduction to mineralogy |date=2000 |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=New York |isbn=9780195106916 |page=239}}</ref> Grades of serpentinite higher in [[calcite]], along with the [[verd antique]] ([[breccia]] form of serpentinite), have historically been used as decorative stones for their marble-like qualities. [[College Hall (University of Pennsylvania)|College Hall]] at the [[University of Pennsylvania]], for example, is constructed out of serpentine. Popular sources in Europe before contact with the Americas were the mountainous [[Piedmont]] region of Italy and [[Larissa, Greece]].<ref>Ashurst, John. Dimes, Francis G. ''Conservation of building and decorative stone''. Elsevier Butterworth-Heinemann, 1990, p. 51.</ref>
Serpentinites are used in many ways in the arts and crafts. For example, the rock has been turned in [[Zöblitz]] in [[Saxony]] for several hundred years.<ref>Eva Maria Hoyer: ''Sächsischer Serpentin: ein Stein und seine Verwendung''. [[Edition Leipzig]], Leipzig 1996, pp. 20–22.</ref>

=== By the Inuit ===
{{Anchor|Inuit|Qulliq}}The [[Inuit]] and other indigenous people of the [[Arctic]] areas and less so of southern areas used the carved bowl shaped serpentinite [[qulliq]] or [[kudlik]] lamp with wick, to burn oil or fat to heat, make light and cook with. The [[Inuit]] made tools and more recently carvings of animals for commerce.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Kerr |first1=A. |last2=Squires |first2=G.C. |title=Serpentinites and associated rock types near Hopedale, Nunatsiavut: Potential for artisanal carving-stone resources |journal=Geological Survey Report |volume=19 |issue=1 |pages=39–57 |url=https://www.gov.nl.ca/iet/files/mines-geoscience-publications-currentresearch-2019-kerr-2019.pdf |access-date=3 September 2021 |publisher=Newfoundland and Labrador Department of Natural Resources}}</ref>

<gallery widths="220px" heights="220px">
File:Serpentinite_Walrus_2012.jpg|Magnetic serpentine walrus
File:Qulliq_1999-04-01.jpg|[[Inuit]] Elder tending the Qulliq, a ceremonial oil lamp made of serpentinite.
</gallery>

=== As an ovenstone ===
A variety of [[Chlorite group|chlorite]] [[talc]] [[schist]] associated with Alpine serpentinite is found in [[Val d'Anniviers]], [[Switzerland]] and was used for making "ovenstones" ({{langx|de|Ofenstein}}), a carved stone base beneath a [[cast iron]] stove.<ref>[http://www.rsc.org/delivery/_ArticleLinking/DisplayArticleForFree.cfm?doi=CA8987405232&JournalCode=CA Talcose-schist from Canton Valais. By Thomags Bonney, (Geol. Mag., 1897, N.S., &#91;iv&#93;, 4, 110--116) abstract]</ref>

=== Neutron shield in nuclear reactors ===
Serpentinite has a significant amount of [[bound water]], hence it contains abundant [[hydrogen]] atoms able to slow down [[neutron]]s by [[elastic collision]] (neutron [[thermalization]] process). Because of this, serpentinite can be used as dry filler inside [[steel]] jackets in some designs of [[nuclear reactor]]s. For example, in [[RBMK]] series, as at [[Chernobyl]], it was used for top [[radiation shielding]] to protect operators from escaping neutrons.<ref>{{Cite web| last = Lithuanian Energy Institute| title = Design of structures, components, equipments and systems| work = Ignalina Source Book| access-date = 2011-05-28| date = 2011-05-28| url = http://www.lei.lt/insc/sourcebook/sob3/sob33.html| archive-date = 9 October 2011| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20111009041613/http://www.lei.lt/insc/sourcebook/sob3/sob33.html| url-status = dead}}</ref> Serpentine can also be added as [[Construction aggregate|aggregate]] to special [[concrete]] used in nuclear reactor shielding to increase the concrete density ({{convert|2.6|g/cm3|abbr=on}}) and its [[neutron capture]] [[Cross section (physics)|cross section]].<ref>{{Cite conference| last1 = Aminian| first1 = A.| last2 = Nematollahi| first2 = M.R.| last3 = Haddad| first3 = K.| last4 = Mehdizadeh| first4 = S.| date = 3–8 June 2007| title = Determination of shielding parameters for different types of concretes by Monte Carlo methods| location = Istanbul, Turkey| conference = ICENES 2007: International Conference on Emerging Nuclear Energy Systems. Session 12B: Radiation effects| pages = 7| url = http://www.icenes2007.org/icenes_proceedings/manuscripts.pdf/Session%2012B/DETERMINATION%20OF.pdf| access-date = 28 May 2011| archive-date = 3 March 2016| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160303170929/http://www.icenes2007.org/icenes_proceedings/manuscripts.pdf/Session%2012B/DETERMINATION%20OF.pdf| url-status = dead}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal| last = Abulfaraj| first = Waleed H.|author2=Salah M. Kamal| title = Evaluation of ilmenite serpentine concrete and ordinary concrete as nuclear reactor shielding| journal = Radiation Physics and Chemistry| volume = 44| issue = 1–2| pages = 139–148| doi = 10.1016/0969-806X(94)90120-1| issn = 0969-806X|bibcode = 1994RaPC...44..139A | year = 1994}}</ref>

=== CO<sub>2</sub> sequestration ===
{{Main article|Carbon sequestration}}
Because it readily absorbs [[carbon dioxide]], serpentinite may be of use for [[Carbon sequestration|sequestering atmospheric carbon dioxide]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Farhang |first1=F. |last2=Oliver |first2=T.K. |last3=Rayson |first3=M.S. |last4=Brent |first4=G.F. |last5=Molloy |first5=T.S. |last6=Stockenhuber |first6=M. |last7=Kennedy |first7=E.M. |title=Dissolution of heat activated serpentine for CO<sub>2</sub> sequestration: The effect of silica precipitation at different temperature and pH values |journal=Journal of CO<sub>2</sub> Utilization |date=March 2019 |volume=30 |pages=123–129 |doi=10.1016/j.jcou.2019.01.009|s2cid=104424416 }}</ref> To speed up the reaction, serpentinite may be reacted with carbon dioxide at elevated temperature in carbonation reactors. Carbon dioxide may also be reacted with [[alkali]]ne mine waste from serpentine deposits, or carbon dioxide may be injected directly into underground serpentinite formations.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Power |first1=I. M. |last2=Wilson |first2=S. A. |last3=Dipple |first3=G. M. |title=Serpentinite Carbonation for CO<sub>2</sub> Sequestration |journal=Elements |date=1 April 2013 |volume=9 |issue=2 |pages=115–121 |doi=10.2113/gselements.9.2.115|bibcode=2013Eleme...9..115P }}</ref> Serpentinite may also be used as a source of [[magnesium]] in conjunction with electrolytic cells for CO<sub>2</sub> scrubbing.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Li |first1=Wenzhi |last2=Li |first2=Wen |last3=Li |first3=Baoqing |last4=Bai |first4=Zongqing |title=Electrolysis and heat pretreatment methods to promote CO<sub>2</sub> sequestration by mineral carbonation |journal=Chemical Engineering Research and Design |date=February 2009 |volume=87 |issue=2 |pages=210–215 |doi=10.1016/j.cherd.2008.08.001 |bibcode=2009CERD...87..210L |language=en}}</ref>

== Cultural references ==
It is the state rock of [[California]], USA and the California Legislature specified that serpentine was "the official State Rock and lithologic emblem."<ref name="CACode"/> In 2010, a bill was introduced which would have removed serpentine's special status as state rock due to it potentially containing [[chrysotile]] [[asbestos]].<ref>{{cite news|last1=Fimrite|first1=Peter|title=Geologists protest bill to remove state rock|url=https://www.sfgate.com/news/article/Geologists-protest-bill-to-remove-state-rock-3258944.php|access-date=17 April 2018|work=San Francisco Chronicle|date=16 July 2010}}</ref> The bill met with resistance from some California geologists, who noted that the chrysotile present is not hazardous unless it is mobilized in the air as [[dust]].<ref>{{cite web|last1=Frazell|first1=Julie|last2=Elkins|first2=Rachel|last3=O'Geen|first3=Anthony|last4=Reynolds|first4=Robert|last5=Meyers|first5=James|title=Facts about Serpentine Rock and Soil Containing Asbestos in California|url=http://anrcatalog.ucanr.edu/pdf/8399.pdf|website=ANR Catalog|publisher=University of California Division of Agriculture and Natural Resources|access-date=17 April 2018}}</ref>
{{Update inline|reason=Is serpentine still the state rock of California? Did the 2010 repeal attempt succeed or fail?|date=March 2022}}

== See also ==
* {{annotated link|Hydrogen cycle}}
* {{annotated link|Nephrite}}
* {{annotated link|Soapstone}}

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== External links ==
{{commons category|Serpentinite}}
* [http://www.lostcity.washington.edu/story/Serpentinization]  The Lost City hydrothermal field, [[Mid-Atlantic Ridge]]: serpentinization, the driving force of the system.
* [http://www.pnas.org/cgi/content/full/101/35/12818 H<sub>2</sub>-rich fluids from serpentinization: Geochemical and biotic implications]: [[Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences]].
{{Rock type}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Serpentine group]]
[[Category:Metamorphic petrology]]
[[Category:Metamorphic rocks]]