View source for Sake

{{Short description|Alcoholic beverage of Japanese origin}}
{{About|the beverage}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=November 2012}}
{{Use American English|date=September 2020}}
{{Infobox drink
| name = Sake
| image = Sake set.jpg
| image_alt = 
| image_size = 300px
| caption = Sake can be served in a wide variety of cups. Pictured is a {{lang|ja-latn|sakazuki}} (a flat, saucer-like cup), an {{lang|ja-latn|ochoko}} (a small, cylindrical cup), and a ''[[Masu (measurement)|masu]]'' (a wooden, box-like cup).
| type = Alcoholic beverage
| abv = 15–22%
| proof = 
| manufacturer = 
| distributor = 
| origin = [[Japan]]
| introduced = 
| discontinued = 
| color = 
| flavour = 
| ingredients = Rice, water, ''kōji-kin'' (''[[Aspergillus oryzae]]'' or ''[[Aspergillus luchuensis|Aspergillus kawachii]]'' or ''[[Aspergillus luchuensis]]''<ref name="kawachii220520"/>{{efn|In Japan, the term ''kōji'' may refer to all fungi used in fermented foods or to specific species of fungi, ''Aspergillus oryzae'' and ''[[Aspergillus sojae]]''.<ref name="matsushima210122"/><ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20200728052701/https://www.marukome.co.jp/koji/ {{lang|ja|麹のこと}}] {{in lang|ja}}. Marukome co., ltd.</ref>}}), sake [[yeast]]
| variants = 
| related = 
| website = 
| region = 
}}
{{IPA|}}
[[File:Japanese - Sake Bottle ("Tokkuri") with Children - Walters 49966 - View C.jpg|thumb|Sake bottle, Japan, {{Circa|1740}}]]
[[File:Sake Hachimangu.jpg|thumb|Sake barrel offerings at the Shinto shrine [[Tsurugaoka Hachimangū]] in [[Kamakura]]]]

'''Sake''', {{Nihongo|'''saké'''|酒|sake|{{IPAc-en|lang|ipa|ˈ|s|ɑː|k|i|,_|ˈ|s|æ|k|eɪ}} {{respell|SAH|kee|,_|SAK|ay}}<ref>{{cite book|title=The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language|year=2011|publisher=Houghton Mifflin Harcourt|location=Boston|isbn=978-0-547-04101-8|page=1546}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=The Oxford Dictionary of Foreign Words and Phrases|url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780965016070|url-access=registration|year=1997|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=Oxford|isbn=0-19-860236-7|page=[https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780965016070/page/375 375]}}</ref>|lead=yes}}, or '''saki''',<ref>{{Cite web |title=Definition of SAKE |url=https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/sake |access-date=2024-06-04 |website=www.merriam-webster.com |language=en}}</ref> also referred to as Japanese [[rice wine]],<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/alcohol-consumption#ref467216|title=alcohol consumption|encyclopedia=Encyclopedia Britannica|access-date=2017-03-09|language=en}}</ref> is an alcoholic beverage of [[Japanese cuisine|Japanese]] origin made by fermenting [[rice]] that has been [[White rice|polished]] to remove the [[bran]]. Despite the name ''Japanese rice wine'', sake, and indeed any East Asian rice wine (such as [[huangjiu]] and [[Cheongju (drink)|cheongju]]), is produced by a [[brewing]] process more akin to that of [[beer]], where [[starch]] is converted into sugars that ferment into alcohol, whereas in [[wine]], [[Ethanol|alcohol]] is produced by [[Fermentation in winemaking|fermenting]] sugar that is naturally present in fruit, typically grapes.

The brewing process for sake differs from the process for beer, where the conversion from starch to sugar and then from sugar to alcohol occurs in two distinct steps. Like other [[rice wine]]s, when sake is brewed, these conversions occur simultaneously. The alcohol content differs between sake, wine, and beer; while most beer contains 3–9% [[Alcohol by volume|ABV]], wine generally contains 9–16% [[Alcohol by volume|ABV]],<ref>{{cite book |last=Robinson |first=Jancis |title=The Oxford Companion to Wine |url=https://archive.org/details/oxfordcompaniont00janc |url-access=registration |edition=3rd |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2006 |page=[https://archive.org/details/oxfordcompaniont00janc/page/10 10]|isbn=978-0-19-860990-2 }}</ref> and undiluted sake contains 18–20% [[Alcohol by volume|ABV]] (although this is often lowered to about 15% by diluting with water before bottling).

In [[Japanese language|Japanese]], the character {{tlit|ja|sake}} ([[kanji]]: [[wikt:酒#Japanese|酒]], {{IPA|ja|sake}}) can refer to any [[Alcoholic beverage|alcoholic drink]], while the beverage called sake in English is usually termed {{Nihongo||日本酒|'''nihonshu'''|meaning 'Japanese alcoholic drink'}}. Under Japanese [[Alcohol law|liquor laws]], sake is labeled with the word {{Nihongo3|'refined alcohol'|清酒|'''seishu'''}}, a synonym not commonly used in conversation.

In Japan, where it is the national beverage, sake is often served with special [[ceremony]], where it is gently warmed in a small earthenware or [[porcelain]] bottle and sipped from a small porcelain cup called a ''[[Sake set#Drinking cups|sakazuki]]''. As with wine, the recommended serving temperature of sake varies greatly by type.

==History==
[[File:Pair of Sake Flasks Momoyama Period Yale University Art Gallery.jpg|thumb|A pair of sake flasks painted in gold and black [[lacquer]]. [[Azuchi–Momoyama period|Momoyama period]], 16th century.]]

=== Until the Kamakura period ===
The origin of sake is unclear; however, the method of fermenting rice into alcohol spread to Japan from China around 500BCE.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-01-07 |title=The History of Japanese Sake {{!}} JSS |url=https://japansake.or.jp/sake/en/basic/japanese-sake-history/ |access-date=2022-09-01 |website=Japan Sake and Shochu Makers Association {{!}} JSS |language=ja}}</ref> The earliest reference to the use of alcohol in Japan is recorded in the ''[[Book of Wei]]'' in the ''[[Records of the Three Kingdoms]]''. This 3rd-century Chinese text speaks of Japanese drinking and dancing.<ref name="EB">{{Cite encyclopedia|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/sake|title=sake {{!}} alcoholic beverage|encyclopedia=Encyclopedia Britannica|access-date=2017-03-09|language=en}}</ref>

{{nihongo|Alcoholic beverages|酒|sake}} are mentioned several times in the {{Lang|ja-latn|[[Kojiki]]}}, Japan's first written history, which was compiled in 712. Bamforth (2005) places the probable origin of true sake (which is made from rice, water, and {{Nihongo3|''[[Aspergillus oryzae]]''|麹|[[Kōji (food)|Kōji]]}}) in the [[Nara period]] (710–794).<ref name="ivan1964">{{cite book |last=Morris |first=Ivan |year=1964 |title=The World of the Shining Prince: Court Life in Ancient Japan|url=https://archive.org/details/worldofshining00morr |url-access=registration |publisher=New York: Knopf }}</ref> The fermented food fungi traditionally used for making alcoholic beverages in China and Korea for a long time were fungi belonging to ''[[Rhizopus]]'' and ''[[Mucor]]'', whereas in Japan, except in the early days, the fermented food fungus used for sake brewing was ''Aspergillus oryzae''.<ref name="jabba">{{cite web|url=https://katosei.jsbba.or.jp/view_html.php?aid=366|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210204012158/https://katosei.jsbba.or.jp/view_html.php?aid=366|script-title=ja:国際的に認知される日本の国菌|language=ja|publisher=Japan Society for Bioscience, Biotechnology, and Agrochemistry|author=Eiji Ichishima|date=20 March 2015|archive-date=4 February 2021}}</ref><ref name="sbj2012">{{cite web|url=https://www.sbj.or.jp/wp-content/uploads/file/sbj/9007/9007_yomoyama_1.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221031014115/https://www.sbj.or.jp/wp-content/uploads/file/sbj/9007/9007_yomoyama_1.pdf|script-title=ja:麹菌物語
|language=ja|publisher=The Society for Biotechnology, Japan|author=Katsuhiko Kitamoto|page=424|date=|archive-date=31 October 2022}}</ref><ref name="matsushima210122">{{cite web|url=https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/jbrewsocjapan/109/9/109_643/_pdf/-char/ja|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220621222449/https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/jbrewsocjapan/109/9/109_643/_pdf/-char/ja|author=Kenichiro Matsushima|script-title=ja:醤油づくりと麹菌の利用ー今までとこれからー|page=643|language=ja|archive-date=21 June 2022}}</ref> Some scholars believe the Japanese domesticated the mutated, detoxified ''[[Aspergillus flavus]]'' to give rise to ''Aspergillus oryzae''.<ref name="sbj2012"/><ref name="sys131122">{{cite web|url=http://www.yeast.umin.jp/yeast-symposium21/abstract21-21.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221113184903/http://www.yeast.umin.jp/yeast-symposium21/abstract21-21.pdf|script-title=ja:家畜化された微生物、麹菌 その分子細胞生物学的解析から見えてきたこと|page=2|author=Katsuhiko Kitamoto|language=ja|publisher=The Society of Yeast Scientists.|archive-date=13 November 2022}}</ref><ref name="dj101122">{{cite web|url=https://discoverjapan-web.com/article/65729|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221110122008/https://discoverjapan-web.com/article/65729|script-title=ja:日本の発酵技術と歴史|language=ja|publisher=Discover Japan Inc.|author=Kiyoko Hayashi|date=19 July 2021|archive-date=10 November 2022}}</ref>

In the [[Heian period]] (794–1185), sake was used for religious ceremonies, court festivals, and drinking games.<ref name="ivan1964"/> Sake production was a government monopoly for a long time, but in the 10th century, [[Buddhist temples in Japan|Buddhist temples]] and [[Shinto shrine|Shinto shrines]] began to brew sake, and they became the main centers of production for the next 500 years.

=== Muromachi period ===
Before the 1440s in the [[Muromachi period]] (1333–1573), the Buddhist temple [[Shōryaku-ji]] invented various innovative methods for making sake. Because these production methods are the origin of the basic production methods for sake brewing today, Shoryakuji is often said to be the birthplace of {{Nihongo3||清酒|[[#Different handling after fermentation|seishu]]}}. Until then, most sake had been [[Nigori|{{tlit|ja|nigorizake}}]] with a different process from today's, but after that, clear {{tlit|ja|seishu}} was established. The main production methods established by Shōryaku-ji are the use of {{Nihongo|all polished rice|諸白造り|morohaku zukuri}}, {{Nihongo|three-stage fermentation|三段仕込み|sandan zikomi}}, {{Nihongo|brewing of starter mash using acidic water produced by lactic acid fermentation|菩提酛づくり|bodaimoto zukuri}}, and {{Nihongo|[[pasteurization]]|火入れ|hiire}}. This method of producing starter mash is called [[#Methods of preparing the starter mash|{{tlit|ja|bodaimoto}}]], which is the origin of [[#Methods of preparing the starter mash|{{tlit|ja|kimoto}}]]. These innovations made it possible to produce sake with more stable quality than before, even in temperate regions. These things are described in {{tlit|ja|Goshu no nikki}}, the oldest known technical book on sake brewing written in 1355 or 1489, and {{tlit|ja|Tamonin nikki}}, a diary written between 1478 and 1618 by monks of [[Kōfuku-ji]] Temple in the Muromachi period.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.pref.nara.jp/miryoku/ikasu-nara/seishu/shoryakuji/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211011155002/https://www.pref.nara.jp/miryoku/ikasu-nara/seishu/shoryakuji/|script-title=ja:清酒発祥の地 正暦寺|language=ja|publisher=[[Nara Prefecture]]|archive-date=11 October 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://shoryakuji.jp/sake-birthplace.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220906124314/https://shoryakuji.jp/sake-birthplace.html|script-title=ja:正暦寺、清酒発祥の歴史|language=ja|publisher= [[Shōryaku-ji]]|archive-date=6 September 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://sakestreet.com/ja/media/what-are-bodaimoto-and-mizumoto|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220526172234/https://sakestreet.com/ja/media/what-are-bodaimoto-and-mizumoto|script-title=ja:原点回帰の「新」製法？ - 菩提酛（ぼだいもと）、水酛（みずもと）を学ぶ|language=ja|author=Kazuha Seara|publisher=Sake street|date=5 June 2020|archive-date=26 May 2022}}</ref>

A large tub with a capacity of 10 ''[[koku]]'' (1,800 liters) was invented at the end of the Muromachi period, making it possible to mass-produce sake more efficiently than before. Until then, sake had been made in jars with a capacity of 1, 2, or 3 ''koku'' at the most, and some sake brewers used to make sake by arranging 100 jars.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.kikusui-sake.com/home/jp/fun/story/07-2/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220706152932/https://www.kikusui-sake.com/home/jp/fun/story/07-2/|script-title=ja:第七話 十石桶が出現|language=ja|publisher=Kikusui|archive-date=6 July 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://sakestreet.com/ja/media/history-of-sake-vessels|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220526184002/https://sakestreet.com/ja/media/history-of-sake-vessels|script-title=ja:日本酒の「容器・流通イノベーション」の歴史と現在地|language=ja|publisher=Sake street|date=3 June 2020|archive-date=26 May 2022}}</ref>

In the 16th century, the technique of distillation was introduced into the Kyushu district from Ryukyu.<ref name="EB" /> The brewing of [[shōchū]], called "Imo–sake" started and was sold at the central market in [[Kyoto]].

=== Edo period ===
By the [[Genroku]] era (1688–1704) of the [[Edo period]] (1603–1867), a brewing method called {{Nihongo||柱焼酎|hashira jōchū}} was developed in which a small amount of distilled alcohol ([[shōchū]]) was added to the mash to make it more aromatic and lighter in taste, while at the same preventing deterioration in quality. This originates from the distilled alcohol addition used in modern sake brewing.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.jyokai.com/?p=275|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221216123035/https://www.jyokai.com/?p=275|script-title=ja:九州人が日本酒復権に挑む、柱焼酎造りを復活|language=ja|publisher=Jyokai Times|date=13 July 2005|archive-date=16 December 2022}}</ref>

The [[Nada-Gogō]] area in [[Hyōgo Prefecture]], the largest producer of modern sake, was formed during this period. When the population of [[Edo]], modern-day [[Tokyo]], began to grow rapidly in the early 1600s, brewers who made sake in inland areas such as [[Fushimi-ku, Kyoto|Fushimi]], [[Itami]], and [[Ikeda, Osaka|Ikeda]] moved to the Nada-Gogō area on the coast, where the weather and water quality were perfect for brewing sake and convenient for shipping it to Edo. In the Genroku era, when the culture of the ''[[chōnin]]'' class, the common people, prospered, the consumption of sake increased rapidly, and large quantities of {{Nihongo||樽酒|[[#Different handling after fermentation|taruzake]]}} were shipped to Edo. 80% of the sake drunk in Edo during this period was from Nada-Gogō. Many of today's major sake producers, including Hakutsuru, Ōzeki, Nihonsakari, Kikumasamune, Kenbishi and [[Sawanotsuru]], are breweries in Nada-Gogō.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.nippon.com/en/guide-to-japan/gu900138/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221109220048/https://www.nippon.com/en/guide-to-japan/gu900138/|title=Exploring the Sake Breweries of Nada.|publisher=Nippon.com.|date=15 May 2020|archive-date=9 November 2022}}</ref>

During this period, frequent natural disasters and bad weather caused rice shortages, and the [[Tokugawa shogunate]] issued sake brewing restrictions 61 times.<ref name="times130117">{{cite web|url=https://jp.sake-times.com/knowledge/culture/sake_g_meiji_shuzei_koshu|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220703110921/https://jp.sake-times.com/knowledge/culture/sake_g_meiji_shuzei_koshu|script-title=ja:政策によって姿を消した熟成古酒―明治時代における造石税と日本酒の関係|language=ja|publisher=Sake Times|date=13 January 2017|archive-date=3 July 2022}}</ref> In the early Edo period, there was a sake brewing technique called {{Nihongo||四季醸造|shiki jōzō}} that was optimized for each season. In 1667, the technique of {{Nihongo||寒造り|kanzukuri}} for making sake in winter was improved, and in 1673, when the Tokugawa shogunate banned brewing other than ''kanzukuri'' because of a shortage of rice, the technique of sake brewing in the four seasons ceased, and it became common to make sake only in winter until industrial technology began to develop in the 20th century.<ref name="lab1">{{cite web|url=https://sake-5.jp/history-of-sake-part-1/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221211124316/https://sake-5.jp/history-of-sake-part-1/|script-title=ja:日本酒の歴史、起源から明治時代までの変遷を解説|language=ja|publisher=Nihonshu Lab|date=24 February 2021|archive-date=11 December 2022}}</ref> During this period, aged for three, five, or nine years, {{Nihongo||古酒|[[#Different handling after fermentation|koshu]]}} was a luxury, but its deliciousness was known to the common people.<ref name="times130117"/>

[[File:Bereiding van saké 1781.jpg|thumb|right|Title page of {{Lang|nl|Bereiding van Sacki}}, by [[Isaac Titsingh]]: earliest explanation of the sake brewing process in a European language. Published in 1781, in [[Batavia, Dutch East Indies]].]]
In the 18th century, [[Engelbert Kaempfer]]<ref>{{cite book |last=Kaempfer|first= Engelbert |year=1906 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kcsNAAAAIAAJ |title=The History of Japan |volume= I |page= 187}}</ref> and [[Isaac Titsingh]]<ref>Titsingh, Isaac. (1781). [http://library.wur.nl/WebQuery/catalog/66098?wq_sfx=lang ''"Bereiding van de Sacki"'' ("Production of Sake"), ''Verhandelingen van het Bataviaasch Genootschap'' (''Transactions of the Batavian Academy'').] Vol. III. {{OCLC|9752305}}</ref> published accounts identifying sake as a popular alcoholic beverage in Japan, but Titsingh was the first to try to explain and describe the process of sake brewing.  The work of both writers was widely disseminated throughout Europe at the beginning of the 19th century.<ref>{{cite book |last=Morewood |first=Samuel |year=1824 |url=https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_os4GAAAAQAAJ |quote=japan sacki. |title=An Essay on the Inventions and Customs of Both Ancients and Moderns in the Use of Inebriating Liquors |publisher=Books on Demand |page=[https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_os4GAAAAQAAJ/page/n155 136]}}</ref>

=== From the Meiji era to the early Shōwa era ===
Starting around the beginning of the [[Meiji era]] (1868–1912), the technique for making sake began to develop rapidly. Breeding was actively carried out in various parts of Japan to produce [[#Rice|sake rice]] optimized for sake brewing. ''Ise Nishiki'' developed in 1860, ''Omachi'' developed in 1866 and ''Shinriki'' developed in 1877 are the earliest representative varieties. In 1923, [[Yamada Nishiki]], later called the "king of sake rice," was produced.<ref name="lab1"/> Among more than 123 varieties of sake rice as of 2019, Yamada Nishiki ranks first in production and ''Omachi'' fourth.<ref name ="nourin"/> The government opened the sake-brewing research institute in 1904, and in 1907 the first government-run sake-tasting competition was held. In 1904, the National Brewing Laboratory developed ''[[#Methods of preparing the starter mash|yamahai]]'', a new method of making starter mash, and in 1910, a further improvement, ''[[#Methods of preparing the starter mash|sokujō]]'', was developed.<ref name="lab1"/> Sake [[yeast]] strains specifically selected for their brewing properties were isolated, and enamel-coated steel tanks arrived. The government started hailing the use of enamel tanks as easy to clean, lasting forever, and devoid of bacterial problems. (The government considered wooden tubs to be unhygienic because of the potential bacteria living in the wood.) Although these things are true, the government also wanted more tax money from breweries, as using wooden tubs means a significant amount of sake is lost to evaporation (approximately 3%), which could have otherwise been taxed. This was the temporary end of the wooden-tubs age of sake, and the use of wooden tubs in brewing was temporarily eliminated.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://toyokeizai.net/articles/-/43735?page=2|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210122013850/https://toyokeizai.net/articles/-/43735?page=2|script-title=ja:最後の大桶職人が抱く｢木桶文化｣存続の焦燥|language=ja|publisher=[[Toyo Keizai]] Online|date=27 July 2017|archive-date=22 January 2021}}</ref>

In Japan, sake has long been taxed by the national government. In 1878, the liquor tax accounted for 12.3% of the national tax revenue, excluding local taxes, and in 1888 it was 26.4%, and in 1899 it was 38.8%, finally surpassing the land tax of 35.6%.<ref name="times130117"/> In 1899, the government banned home brewing in anticipation of financial pressure from the [[First Sino-Japanese War]] and in preparation for the [[Russo-Japanese War]]. Since home-brewed sake is tax-free, the logic was that by banning the home-brewing of sake, sales would increase, and more tax revenue would be collected. This was the end of home-brewed sake.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.ruralnet.or.jp/syutyo/2002/200212.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200619123714/https://www.ruralnet.or.jp/syutyo/2002/200212.htm|script-title=ja:「ドブロク」から21世紀の新しい社会を展望する|language=ja|publisher=Rural Culture Association Japan|date=December 2002|archive-date=19 June 2020}}</ref> The Meiji government adopted a system in which taxes were collected when sake was finished, instead of levying taxes on the amount and price of sake at the time of sale to ensure more revenue from liquor taxes. The liquor tax for the sake produced in a given year had to be paid to the government during that fiscal year, so the breweries tried to make money by selling the sake as soon as possible. This destroyed the market for aged {{Nihongo3|||koshu}}, which had been popular until then, and it was only in 1955 that sake breweries began to make {{Nihongo3|||koshu}} again.<ref name="times130117"/>

When [[World War II]] brought rice shortages, the sake-brewing industry was hampered as the government discouraged the use of rice for brewing. As early as the late 17th century, it had been discovered that small amounts of distilled alcohol could be added to sake before pressing to extract aromas and flavors from the rice solids. During the war, large amounts of distilled alcohol and [[glucose]] were added to small quantities of rice mash, increasing the yield by as much as four times. A few breweries were producing "sake" that contained no rice. The quality of sake during this time varied considerably. Incidentally, as of 2022, so much distilled alcohol is not allowed to be added, and under the provisions of the Liquor Tax Act, 50% of the weight of rice is the upper limit for the most inexpensive sake classified as ''[[#Special-designation sake|futsū-shu]]''.<ref name="jozo">{{cite web|url=https://tanoshiiosake.jp/8357|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220626121242/https://tanoshiiosake.jp/8357|script-title=ja:「醸造アルコール」って何？ なぜ使われているの|language=ja|publisher=Tanoshii osake.com|date=7 February 2022|archive-date=26 June 2022}}</ref>

=== Since the mid-Showa era ===
After the war, the breweries gradually recovered and the quality of sake steadily improved, and there were various innovations in sake brewing. The term {{Nihongo||吟造|ginzō}}, which means carefully brewed sake, first appeared at the end of the Edo period, and the term {{Nihongo||吟醸|ginjō}}, which has the same meaning, first appeared in 1894. However, {{Nihongo||吟醸酒|[[#Special-designation sake|ginjō-shu]]}}, which is popular in the world today, was created by the development of various sake production techniques from the 1930s to around 1975. From 1930 to 1931, a new type of rice milling machine was invented, which made it possible to make rice with a polishing ratio of about 50%, removing the miscellaneous taste derived from the surface part of the rice grain to make sake with a more aromatic and refreshing taste than before. In 1936, [[Yamada Nishiki]], the most suitable sake rice for brewing ''ginjō-shu'', became the recommended variety of [[Hyogo Prefecture]]. Around 1953, the {{Nihongo|"Kyokai yeast No. 9"|協会9号酵母|kyokai kyu-gō kōbo}}, was invented, which produced fruit-like aromas like apples and bananas but also excelled in fermentation. From around 1965, more and more manufacturers began to work on the research and development of ''ginjō-shu'', and by about 1968, the Kyokai yeast No. 9 began to be used throughout Japan. In the 1970s, temperature control technology in the mash production process improved dramatically. And by slowly fermenting rice at low temperatures using high-milled rice and a newly developed sake yeast, ''ginjō-shu'' with a fruity flavor was created. At that time, ''ginjō-shu'' was a special sake exhibited at competitive exhibitions and was not on the market. From around 1975, ''ginjō-shu'' began to be marketed and was widely distributed in the 1980s, and in 1990, with the definition of what can be labeled as ''ginjō-shu'', more and more brewers began to sell ''ginjō-shu''. The growing popularity of ''ginjō-shu'' has prompted research into yeast, and many yeasts with various aromas optimized for ''ginjō-shu'' have been developed.<ref name="ginjo">{{cite web|url=https://www.gekkeikan.co.jp/enjoy/sake/industry/industry04.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220521054045/https://www.gekkeikan.co.jp/enjoy/sake/industry/industry04.html|script-title=ja:「吟醸」のあゆみ 特別に吟味して醸造する酒として、長年かけ洗練|language=ja|publisher=[[Gekkeikan]]|archive-date=21 May 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://sake-5.jp/history-of-sake-part-2/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221211124322/https://sake-5.jp/history-of-sake-part-2/|script-title=ja: 日本酒の歴史、昭和から戦後を経て現代までの変遷を解説|language=ja|publisher= Nihonshu Lab|date=2 March 2021|archive-date=11 December 2022}}</ref>

In 1973, the [[National Tax Agency]]'s brewing research institute developed {{Nihongo||貴醸酒|[[#Others|kijōshu]]}}.<ref name="kijoshu"/>

New players on the scene—beer, wine, and spirits—became popular in Japan, and in the 1960s, beer consumption surpassed sake for the first time. Sake consumption continued to decrease while the quality of sake steadily improved. While the rest of the world may be drinking more sake and the quality of sake has been increasing, sake production in Japan has been declining since the mid-1970s.<ref>{{cite book |last=Gauntner|first= John |year=2002 |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=5y7X-mfWCEIC |title=The Sake Handbook| page= 78|publisher= Tuttle |isbn= 9780804834254 }}</ref> The number of sake breweries is also declining. While there were 3,229 breweries nationwide in fiscal 1975, the number had fallen to 1,845 in 2007.<ref>{{cite web|last=Omura |first=Mika |title=Weekend: Sake breweries go with the flow to survive |url=http://www.asahi.com/english/Herald-asahi/TKY200911060122.html |date=November 6, 2009 |access-date=December 29, 2009 }}{{dead link|date=May 2016|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}</ref> In recent years, exports have rapidly increased due to the growing popularity of sake worldwide. The value of sake exports in 2022 was more than six times that of 2009.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.jacom.or.jp/ryutsu/news/2023/02/230206-64508.php|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230207170150/https://www.jacom.or.jp/ryutsu/news/2023/02/230206-64508.php|script-title=ja:日本酒輸出2022年度実績 金額・数量ともに過去最高 日本酒造組合中央会|language=ja|publisher=[[Japan Agricultural Cooperatives]]|date=6 February 2023|archive-date=7 February 2023}}</ref> As of 2022, the value of Japan's alcoholic beverage exports was approximately 139.2 billion yen, with [[Japanese whisky]] in first place at 56.1 billion yen and sake in second place at 47.5 billion yen.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.nta.go.jp/taxes/sake/yushutsu/yushutsu_tokei/pdf/0021010-203.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230207165709/https://www.nta.go.jp/taxes/sake/yushutsu/yushutsu_tokei/pdf/0021010-203.pdf|script-title=ja:最近の日本産酒類の輸出動向について|language=ja|publisher=[[National Tax Agency]]|date=|archive-date=7 February 2023}}</ref> Today, sake has become a world beverage with a few breweries in China, Southeast Asia, South America, North America, and Australia.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.japantimes.co.jp/life/2019/05/04/food/american-based-breweries-creating-brand-sake/|title=American-based breweries are creating their own brand of sake|last=Hirano|first=Ko|date=2019-05-04|work=The Japan Times Online|access-date=2019-12-04|language=en-US|issn=0447-5763|archive-date=April 23, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200423224228/https://www.japantimes.co.jp/life/2019/05/04/food/american-based-breweries-creating-brand-sake/|url-status=dead}}</ref>

In addition to ''Aspergillus oryzae'' (yellow ''kōji''), ''[[Aspergillus luchuensis|Aspergillus kawachii]]'' (white ''kōji'') and ''[[Aspergillus luchuensis]]'' (black ''kōji''), which are used to brew ''[[shōchū]]'' and ''[[awamori]]'', have been used to brew sake since the 21st century.<ref name="kawachii220520"/>

In 2018, [[Satake Corporation]] developed a new type of rice milling machine that allows dramatically faster and more focused milling of the long axis portion of rice, which has a high mineral content and adds a miscellaneous taste to the flavor. This has made it possible to achieve the same flavor in a ''ginjō-shu'' with a 60% polishing ratio as in a conventional ''daiginjō-shu'' with a 40% polishing ratio, and many breweries now sell sake made from flat-milled rice.<ref name = "nikkei241224">{{cite web|url=https://www.nikkei.com/article/DGXMZO59583050W0A520C2000000/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241224174302/https://www.nikkei.com/article/DGXMZO59583050W0A520C2000000/|script-title=ja: 酒米は磨かず「扁平精米」が産み出す大吟醸の味わい|language=ja|publisher=[[The Nikkei]]|date=31 May 2020|archive-date=24 December 2024}}</ref><ref name = "st041120">{{cite web|url=https://sakestreet.com/ja/media/what-is-henpei-genkei-seimai|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240519165413/https://sakestreet.com/ja/media/what-is-henpei-genkei-seimai|script-title=ja:精米歩合60%でも、40%と同等の味わいを実現？ - 扁平精米、原形精米を学ぶ|language=ja|publisher=SAKE Street, Inc.|date=4 November 2020|archive-date=19 May 2024}}</ref><ref name = "st260822">{{cite web|url=https://sakestreet.com/ja/media/sake-supporters-satake-2|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240618030100/https://sakestreet.com/ja/media/sake-supporters-satake-2|script-title=ja:「大吟醸の次」を目指して - 精米機のパイオニア・サタケが拓く新時代の精米「真吟」に迫る(2)|language=ja|publisher=SAKE Street, Inc.|date=26 August 2022|archive-date=18 June 2024}}</ref>

More breweries are also turning to older methods of production. For example, since the 21st century, the use of wooden tubs has increased again due to the development of sanitary techniques. The use of wooden tubs for fermentation has the advantage of allowing various [[microorganism|microorganisms]] living in the wood to affect sake, allowing more complex fermentation and producing sake with different characteristics. It is also known that the antioxidants contained in wood have a positive effect on sake.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://cuisine-kingdom.com/aramasa/2/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221212070717/https://cuisine-kingdom.com/aramasa/2/|script-title=ja: なぜ今、【木桶】で酒を醸すのか。新政酒造が追い求める日本酒の本質|language=ja|publisher=Cuisine Kingdom|date=21 January 2022|archive-date=12 December 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://forbesjapan.com/articles/detail/37114/2/1/1|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221215073813/https://forbesjapan.com/articles/detail/37114/2/1/1|script-title=ja:唯一無二の味、「木桶」が醸す日本酒の秘密|language=ja|publisher=Forbes Japan|date=27 September 2020|archive-date=15 December 2022}}</ref>

In December 2024, sake was recognized by [[UNESCO]] as an [[Intangible cultural heritage|intangible cultural heritage]].<ref>{{Cite news |date=5 December 2024 |title=Japan’s famous sake joins UNESCO’s cultural heritage list, a boost to brewers and enthusiasts |work=Associated Press |url=https://apnews.com/article/japan-sake-unesco-world-heritage-intangible-cultural-ffb84ba291342e62bf0e588729538351 |access-date=5 December 2024}}</ref>

===Oldest sake brewery===
The oldest sake brewing company still in operation, as confirmed by historical documents, is the [[Sudo Honke]] in [[Kasama, Ibaraki]], founded in 1141 during the [[Heian period]] (794–1185).<ref>{{cite web|script-title=ja: 日本最古の酒蔵ベスト5！ ほか歴史の古い酒蔵は？|language=ja|url=https://allabout.co.jp/gm/gc/225336/|publisher=All About, Inc.|date=13 June 2010|archive-date=30 December 2022|access-date=5 January 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221230024039/https://allabout.co.jp/gm/gc/225336/}}</ref> ''Sudō Honke'' was also the first sake brewery to sell both ''[[#Different handling after fermentation|namazake]]'' and ''hiyaoroshi''. ''Hiyaoroshi'' refers to sake that is finished in winter, pasteurized once in early spring, stored and aged for a little while during the summer, and shipped in the fall without being pasteurized a second time.<ref>{{cite web |script-title=ja: 歴史は850年超！日本最古の酒蔵、茨城・須藤本家に行ってきました|language=ja|url=https://jp.sake-times.com/knowledge/sakagura/sake_g_sudo_ibaraki|publisher=Sake Times|date=21 December 2015|archive-date=28 May 2022|access-date=5 January 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220528234917/https://jp.sake-times.com/knowledge/sakagura/sake_g_sudo_ibaraki}}</ref>

In terms of excavated archaeological evidence, the oldest known sake brewery is from the 15th century near an area that was owned by [[Tenryū-ji]], in [[Ukyō-ku, Kyoto]]. Unrefined sake was squeezed out at the brewery, and there are about 180 holes (60&nbsp;cm wide, 20&nbsp;cm deep) for holding storage jars. A hollow (1.8 meter wide, 1 meter deep) for a pot to collect drops of pressed sake and 14th-century [[Bizen ware]] jars were also found. It is estimated to be utilized until the [[Ōnin War]] (1467–1477). Sake was brewed at [[Tenryū-ji]] during the [[Muromachi period]] (1336–1573).<ref>{{cite web |title=Oldest sake brewery found at former temple site in Kyoto |url=http://www.asahi.com/ajw/articles/AJ202001190005.html |publisher=The Asahi Shimbun |access-date=January 20, 2020 |archive-date=January 19, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200119222931/http://www.asahi.com/ajw/articles/AJ202001190005.html |url-status=dead }}</ref>

==Production==
[[File:Brasserie de saké Takayama.jpg|thumb|Sake brewery in [[Takayama, Gifu|Takayama]], with a ''[[sugidama]]'' globe of [[Cryptomeria|cedar]] leaves indicating new sake]]
===Rice===
[[File:Yamada Nishiki rice (unpolished) from Hyogo.jpg|thumb|[[Yamada Nishiki]]]]
The rice used for brewing sake is called {{Nihongo3|'sake rice'|酒米, さかまい|sakamai}}, or officially {{Nihongo3|'sake-brewing suitable rice'|酒造好適米, しゅぞうこうてきまい|shuzō kōtekimai}}.<ref>{{Cite web|title=A handy guide to sake - Japan's national drink|url=https://japantoday.com/category/features/food/a-handy-guide-to-sake-japan%27s-national-drink|access-date=2021-11-23|website=Japan Today|language=en}}</ref> There are at least 123 types of sake rice in Japan.<ref name ="nourin">{{cite web|url=https://www.maff.go.jp/j/seisaku_tokatu/kikaku/attach/pdf/sake_01chousa-1.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221215083805/https://www.maff.go.jp/j/seisaku_tokatu/kikaku/attach/pdf/sake_01chousa-1.pdf|script-title=ja:資料2 酒造好適米の農産物検査結果（生産量）と令和元年産の生産量推計（銘柄別）|language=ja|publisher=[[Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries (Japan)]]|archive-date=15 December 2022}}</ref> Among these, [[Yamada Nishiki]], Gohyakumangoku, Miyama Nishiki and Omachi rice are popular.<ref name ="nourin"/> The grain is larger, stronger (if a grain is small or weak, it will break in the process of polishing), and contains less protein and lipid than ordinary table rice. Because of the cost, ordinary table rice, which is cheaper than sake rice, is sometimes used for sake brewing, but because sake rice has been improved and optimized for sake brewing, few people eat it.<ref name="yamada">{{cite web|url=http://www.nippon.com/ja/features/h00113/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170625030216/http://www.nippon.com/ja/features/h00113/|script-title=ja:酒米の王様「山田錦」|language=ja|publisher=Nippon.com|date=19 June 2015|archive-date=25 June 2017}}</ref><ref name="nihonshula">{{cite web|url=https://sake-5.jp/rice-polishing-rate/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220519091409/https://sake-5.jp/rice-polishing-rate/|script-title=ja: 日本酒の精米歩合について詳しく解説 精米歩合が高い=良いお米？|language=ja|publisher=Nihonshu Lab|date=18 September 2020|archive-date=19 May 2022}}</ref>

Premium sake is mostly made from sake rice. However, non-premium sake is mostly made from table rice. According to the Japan Sake and Shochu Makers Association, premium sake makes up 25% of total sake production, and non-premium sake ({{tlit|ja|futsushu}}) makes up 75% of sake production. In 2008, a total of 180,000 tons of polished rice were used in sake brewing, of which sake rice accounted for 44,000 tons (24%), and table rice accounted for 136,000 tons (76%).<ref>Page 15 and 37 https://www.nrib.go.jp/English/sake/pdf/guidesse01.pdf {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201111191207/https://www.nrib.go.jp/English/sake/pdf/guidesse01.pdf |date=November 11, 2020 }}</ref>

Sake rice is usually polished to a much higher degree than ordinary table rice. The reason for polishing is a result of the composition and structure of the rice grain itself. The core of the rice grain is rich in starch, while the outer layers of the grain contain higher concentrations of fats, vitamins, and proteins. Since a higher concentration of fat and protein in the sake would lead to off-flavors and contribute rough elements to the sake, the outer layers of the sake rice grain is milled away in a polishing process, leaving only the starchy part of the grain (some sake brewers remove over 60% of the rice grain in the polishing process). That desirable pocket of starch in the center of the grain is called the {{Nihongo||心白, しんぱく|shinpaku}}. It usually takes two to three days to polish rice down to less than half its original size. The rice powder by-product of polishing is often used for making [[Rice cracker|rice crackers]], Japanese sweets (i.e. [[Dango]]), and other food stuffs.<ref name="yamada"/><ref name="nihonshula"/>

If the sake is made with rice with a higher percentage of its husk and the outer portion of the core milled off, then more rice will be required to make that particular sake, which will take longer to produce. Thus, sake made with rice that has been highly milled is usually more expensive than sake that has been made with less-polished rice. This does not always mean that sake made with highly milled rice is of better quality than sake made with rice milled less. Sake made with highly milled rice has a strong aroma and a light taste without miscellaneous taste. It maximizes the fruity flavor of ''[[#Special-designation sake|ginjō]]''. On the other hand, sake made with less milled rice but with attention to various factors tends to have a rich sweetness and flavor derived from rice.<ref name="yamada"/><ref name="nihonshula"/>

''Rice polishing ratio'', called {{Nihongo||精米歩合, せいまいぶあい|Seimai-buai}} (see [[Glossary of sake terms]]) measures the degree of rice polishing. For example, a rice polishing ratio of 70% means that 70% of the original rice grain remains and 30% has been polished away.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Mathew|first=Sunalini|date=2019-01-03|title=Introducing sake|language=en-IN|work=The Hindu|url=https://www.thehindu.com/life-and-style/food/introducing-sake/article25899194.ece|access-date=2021-11-23|issn=0971-751X}}</ref> As of 2023, the most polished sake has a polishing ratio of 0.85% or less, with at least 99.15% of its rice grains polished away. This sake is {{nihongo||零響 Crystal 0|Reikyo Crystal 0}}, released by {{nihongo|Niizawa Brewery Co.|新澤醸造店}}, priced at 1,375,000 yen for 720 ml.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://xtrend.nikkei.com/atcl/contents/18/00765/00003/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230127134216/https://xtrend.nikkei.com/atcl/contents/18/00765/00003/?n_cid=nbpnxr_twed_new|script-title=ja:日本酒の世界最高精米歩合、ついに更新 新澤醸造店が目指す新地平|language=ja|publisher=Nikkei Business Publications, Inc.|date=24 January 2023|archive-date=27 January 2023}}</ref>

===Water===
Water is involved in almost every major sake brewing process, from washing the rice to diluting the final product before bottling.  The mineral content of the water can be important in the final product. [[Iron]] will bond with an [[amino acid]] produced by the {{tlit|ja|kōji}} to produce off flavors and a yellowish color. [[Manganese]], when exposed to ultraviolet light, will also contribute to discoloration.  Conversely, [[potassium]], [[magnesium]], and [[phosphoric acid]] serve as nutrients for sake yeast during fermentation and are considered desirable.<ref name=water>{{cite web|last=Gauntner|first=John|title=How Sake Is Made|date=September 30, 2014|url=http://sake-world.com/about-sake/how-sake-is-made/the-water/|publisher=Sake World|access-date=January 1, 2016}}</ref>  The yeast will use those nutrients to work faster and multiply resulting in more sugar being converted into alcohol. While soft water will typically yield sweeter sake, hard water with a higher mineral content is known for producing [[Dryness (taste)|drier-style]] sake.

The first region known for having great water was the [[Nada-Gogō]] in [[Hyōgo Prefecture]]. A particular water source called {{tlit|ja|Miyamizu}} was found to produce high-quality sake and attracted many producers to the region.

Typically breweries obtain water from wells, though surface water can be used.  Breweries may use tap water and filter and adjust components.<ref name=water />

=== ''Kōji-kin'' ===
==== ''Aspergillus oryzae'' (yellow ''kōji'') ====
''[[Aspergillus oryzae]]'' spores are another important component of sake. ''A. oryzae'' is an enzyme-secreting [[fungus]].<ref name="Machida-2008">{{Cite journal|last1=Machida|first1=Masayuki|last2=Yamada|first2=Osamu|last3=Gomi|first3=Katsuya|date=August 2008|title=Genomics of Aspergillus oryzae: Learning from the History of Koji Mold and Exploration of Its Future|journal=DNA Research |volume=15|issue=4|pages=173–183|doi=10.1093/dnares/dsn020|issn=1340-2838|pmc=2575883|pmid=18820080}}</ref> In Japan, ''A. oryzae'' is used to make various fermented foods, including ''[[miso]]'' (a paste made from soybeans) and {{Nihongo3|||shoyu}} ([[soy sauce]]).<ref name="Machida-2008" /> It is also used to make alcoholic beverages, notably sake.<ref name="Machida-2008" /> During sake brewing, spores of ''A. oryzae'' are scattered over steamed [[rice]] to produce {{Nihongo3|||kōji}} (rice in which ''A. oryzae'' spores are cultivated).<ref name="Tengu Sake">{{Cite web|url=https://www.tengusake.com/sake-guide/how-sake-is-made/|title=How sake is made|website=Tengu Sake|language=en-GB|access-date=2019-08-08}}</ref> Under warm and moist conditions, the ''A. oryzae'' spores germinate and release [[amylase]]s (enzymes that convert the rice [[starch]]es into maltose and glucose). This conversion of starch into simple sugars (e.g., glucose or maltose) is called [[saccharification]]. Yeast then [[fermentation|ferment]] the glucose and other sugar into [[ethanol|alcohol]].<ref name="Tengu Sake" /> Saccharification also occurs in [[beer]] brewing, where [[mashing]] is used to convert starches from [[barley]] into maltose.<ref name="Tengu Sake" /> However, whereas fermentation occurs ''after'' saccharification in beer brewing, saccharification (via ''A. oryzae'') and fermentation (via yeast) occur ''simultaneously'' in sake brewing (see "Fermentation" below).<ref name="Tengu Sake" />

As ''A. oryzae'' is a microorganism used to manufacture food, its safety profile concerning humans and the environment in sake brewing and other food-making processes must be considered. Various health authorities, including [[Health Canada]] and the [[United States|U.S.]] [[Food and Drug Administration]] (FDA), consider ''A. oryzae'' generally safe for use in food fermentation, including sake brewing.<ref name="Machida-2008" /> When assessing its safety, it is important to note that ''A.'' ''oryzae'' lacks the ability to produce toxins, unlike the closely related ''[[Aspergillus flavus]]''.<ref name="Machida-2008" /> To date, there have been several reported cases of animals (e.g. [[parrot]]s, a [[horse]]) being infected with ''A. oryzae''.<ref name="Government of Canada-2017">{{Cite web|url=http://publications.gc.ca/site/archivee-archived.html?url=http://publications.gc.ca/collections/collection_2017/eccc/En14-267-2017-eng.pdf|title=Final Screening Assessment for ''Aspergillus oryzae'' ATCC 11866 |date=January 2017 |last=Government of Canada |access-date=2019-08-08|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191023170107/http://publications.gc.ca/collections/collection_2017/eccc/En14-267-2017-eng.pdf |archive-date=Oct 23, 2019 |url-status=dead}}</ref> In these cases the animals infected with ''A. oryzae'' were already weakened due to predisposing conditions such as recent injury, illness or stress, hence were susceptible to infections in general.<ref name="Government of Canada-2017" /> Aside from these cases, there is no evidence to indicate ''A. oryzae'' is a harmful pathogen to either plants or animals in the scientific literature.<ref name="Government of Canada-2017" /> Therefore, Health Canada considers ''A. oryzae'' "unlikely to be a serious hazard to [[livestock]] or to other organisms," including "healthy or debilitated humans."<ref name="Government of Canada-2017" /> Given its safety record in the scientific literature and extensive history of safe use (spanning several hundred years) in the Japanese food industry, the FDA and [[World Health Organization]] (WHO) also support the safety of ''A. oryzae'' for use in the production of foods like sake.<ref name="Machida-2008" /> In the US, the FDA classifies ''A.oryzae'' as a [[Generally recognized as safe|Generally Recognized as Safe]] (GRAS) organism.<ref name="Machida-2008" />

==== ''Aspergillus kawachii'' (white ''kōji'') ====
In addition to ''Aspergillus oryzae'' (yellow ''kōji''), ''Aspergillus kawachii'' (white ''kōji'') and ''Aspergillus luchuensis'' (black ''kōji''), which are used to brew ''[[shōchū]]'' and ''[[awamori]]'', have been used to brew sake since the 21st century.<ref name="kawachii220520">{{cite web|url=https://sakestreet.com/ja/media/learn-shiro-koji-and-kuro-koji|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220930061200/https://sakestreet.com/ja/media/learn-shiro-koji-and-kuro-koji|script-title=ja:日本酒造りにもたらされた「クエン酸」による変革!! - 白麹、黒麹仕込みの日本酒を学ぶ|language=ja|publisher=Sake Street|date=22 May 2022|archive-date=30 September 2022|access-date=9 April 2023}}</ref>

From the 1980s, research was conducted to brew sake using ''[[Aspergillus luchuensis|Aspergillus kawachii]]'' (white ''kōji''), which is used to make ''shōchū'',<ref>{{cite journal|url=https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/jbrewsocjapan1988/85/2/85_2_114/_article|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180605164117/https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/jbrewsocjapan1988/85/2/85_2_114/_article|title=Fermentation Characteristics of Sake Mash made by Using Rice Koji Prepared with Aspergillus kawachii |first1=Akihiro |last1=Nakamura |first2=Naoki |last2=Iimori |first3=Shigetoshi |last3=Sudo |first4=Shigeaki |last4=Mikami |first5=Kiyoshi |last5=Ito |first6=Takeaki |last6=Ishikawa |journal=Journal of the Brewing Society of Japan |volume=85 |date=1990 |issue=2 |pages=114–119 |doi=10.6013/jbrewsocjapan1988.85.114 |doi-access=free |archive-date=5 June 2018|access-date=9 April 2023}}</ref> and sake made with ''Aspergillus kawachii'' became popular when Aramasa Co, Ltd. released "Amaneko" using ''Aspergillus kawachii'' in 2009. ''Aspergillus kawachii'' produces about 10 times more [[citric acid]] than ''Aspergillus oryzae'', and thus has a strong ability to suppress the growth of bacteria that damage the flavor of sake. It also imparts a sour, citrus-like flavor to sake. Because it produces so much citric acid, older sake-making methods such as ''[[#Methods of preparing the starter mash|kimoto]]'' or ''[[#Methods of preparing the starter mash|yamahai]]'' can produce a starter mash as quickly as modern ''[[#Methods of preparing the starter mash|sokujō]]''. ''Kimoto'' and ''yamahai'' do not add artificial lactic acid, which allows them to be labeled "additive-free," giving them a marketing advantage when exporting.<ref name="kawachii220520"/>

==== ''Aspergillus luchuensis'' (black ''kōji'') ====
As of 2022, sake made with ''[[Aspergillus luchuensis]]'' (black ''kōji'') is not as popular as sake made with ''Aspergillus kawachii''. It produces more citric acid than ''Aspergillus kawachii''. However, it produces less [[amino acid|amino acids]], which produce complex flavors such as [[umami]], bitterness, and sweetness. ''Aspergillus luchuensis'' also produces more [[peptide|peptides]], which results in a bitter taste. This combines with a strong sour taste from the citric acid, which is sometimes compared to strawberry or [[red wine]].<ref name="kawachii220520"/>

=== Sake yeast ===
[[File:Sake made with Kyōkai yeast Akairo kōbo for pink nigorizake, 協会酵母清酒用赤色酵母（桃色濁り酒用）.jpg|thumb|150px|Sake made with Kyokai yeast "Akairo kōbo" for pink ''[[nigori|nigorizake]]''<ref name="akairo2"/>]]
Sake [[yeast]] is so important in sake brewing that it is said to affect the flavor of sake more than rice. In sake brewing, ''kōji'' breaks down rice starch into glucose, and yeast is responsible for the fermentation process that converts the glucose into alcohol. Yeast has a significant impact on the flavor of sake by producing [[Ethyl hexanoate|ethyl caproate]], [[isoamyl acetate]], and other flavor compounds and acids as well as alcohol during the fermentation process.<ref name="ss051219">{{Cite web |author=Kohei Ninohe|script-title=ja:実は味の決め手？「酵母」とは - 日本酒造りにおける役割と種類を徹底解説|language=ja|url=https://sakestreet.com/ja/media/learn-yeast-for-sake-1|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240915004906/https://sakestreet.com/ja/media/learn-yeast-for-sake-1|publisher=SAKE Street, Inc.|date=5 December 2019|archive-date=15 September 2024|access-date=8 February 2025 }}</ref>

The various types of yeast used in sake brewing belong to the species ''[[Saccharomyces cerevisiae]]'', and a large number of yeasts have been developed in Japan.<ref name="ss051219"/> For example, the laboratory of the {{ill|Hakutsuru Sake Brewery|ja|白鶴酒造}} has 400 types of yeast.<ref name="st140120">{{Cite web |author=Akiko Watabe|script-title=ja:400種以上の“自社開発酵母”が日本酒の新たな個性をつくる─ 革新的な商品を次々と生み出す白鶴酒造が培った酵母研究|language=ja|url=https://jp.sake-times.com/special/pr/pr_hakutsuru2_004|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240910114946/https://jp.sake-times.com/special/pr/pr_hakutsuru2_004|publisher=Sake Times|date=14 January 2020|archive-date=10 September 2024|access-date=8 February 2025 }}</ref>

Before the modernization of Japan, breweries used yeasts that were native to each brewery. The yeasts evolved uniquely in each brewery as they competed for survival by mixing with microorganisms that became airborne and attached to the human body during the sake brewing process. Because some of these yeasts were not suitable for brewing sake, the quality of sake varied from brewery to brewery and from period to period.<ref name="hi0220120">{{Cite web |author=|script-title=ja:日本酒の「酵母」の歴史|language=ja|url=https://harimacountry.com/archives/330|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240725194628/https://harimacountry.com/archives/330|publisher=[[Himeji|Himeji City]]|date=21 January 2020|archive-date=25 July 2024|access-date=8 February 2025 }}</ref><ref name="as190214">{{Cite web |author=|script-title=ja:酵母の話（1）|language=ja|url=https://www.osake.or.jp/sake/140219.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230908021908/https://www.osake.or.jp/sake/140219.html|publisher=Akita Sake Brewers Association|date=19 February 2014|archive-date=8 September 2023|access-date=8 February 2025 }}</ref><ref name="kt291222">{{Cite web |author=|script-title=ja:酵母の発見～酵母の歴史を巡る～|language=ja|url=https://tc-kyoto.or.jp/magazine/history-kyotokobo-ep02/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241005065706/https://tc-kyoto.or.jp/magazine/history-kyotokobo-ep02/|publisher= Kyoto Municipal Institute of Industrial Technology and Culture|date=29 December 2022|archive-date=5 October 2024|access-date=8 February 2025 }}</ref>

In 1895, Dr. Kikuji Yabe isolated the first ''Saccharomyces sake'' yeast suitable for brewing sake. In 1904, the government established the National Brewing Laboratory and began detailed studies of yeast.
In 1906, the Brewing Society of Japan was founded, and a system was established whereby any superior yeast discovered was registered as ''Kyokai-kōbo'' ("Kyokai yeast", "Association yeast") and distributed to breweries throughout Japan. Kyokai yeast No. 7 and No. 9 are particularly popular. In response to the popularity of ''ginjō-shu'' since the 1980s, various aromatic yeasts have been developed. Today, the Brewing Society of Japan, research institutes in each prefecture, and breweries continue to develop a variety of yeasts, and an increasing number of breweries are making sake from yeasts found in flowers.<ref name="hi0220120"/><ref name="as190214"/><ref name="kt291222"/>

Some sake yeasts can also color sake. For example, Kyokai yeast "Akairo kōbo", isolated in 1984, can produce pink ''[[nigori]]'' or ''[[#Different handling after fermentation|origarami]]'' sake by producing a red pigment during fermentation. This yeast is not fertile and temperature control is difficult, but it adds a sweet strawberry flavor to the sake.<ref name="akairo">{{Cite web|script-title=ja:清酒用赤色酵母（桃色濁り酒用）|language=ja|url=https://www.jozo.or.jp/yeast/red/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241011234433/https://www.jozo.or.jp/yeast/red/|publisher=The Brewing Society of Japan|date=|archive-date=11 October 2024|access-date=15 February 2025 }}</ref><ref name="akairo2">{{Cite web|script-title=ja:ちえびじん LOVE PINK|language=ja|url=https://www.jizake.com/c/sake/chiebijin/Sake9100_1800|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240916025032/https://www.jizake.com/c/sake/chiebijin/Sake9100_1800|publisher=The Brewing Society of Japan|date=|archive-date=16 September 2024|access-date=15 February 2025 }}</ref>

=== Fermentation ===
[[File:Moromi.JPG|thumb|{{tlit|ja|Moromi}} (the main fermenting mash) undergoing fermentation|alt=]]

Sake fermentation is a three-step process called {{tlit|ja|sandan shikomi}}.<ref name="JSSMA" /> The first step, called {{tlit|ja|hatsuzoe}}, involves steamed rice, water, and {{tlit|ja|kōji-kin}} being added to the yeast starter called {{tlit|ja|shubo}}: a mixture of steamed rice, water, [[Aspergillus oryzae|kōji]], and yeast.<ref name="JSSMA" /> This mixture becomes known as the {{tlit|ja|moromi}} (the main mash during sake fermentation).<ref name="JSSMA" /> The high yeast content of the {{tlit|ja|shubo}} promotes the fermentation of the {{tlit|ja|moromi}}''.''<ref name="JSSMA">{{Cite web|url=http://www.japansake.or.jp/sake/english/howto/process.html|title=Brewing Process {{!}} How to |website=Japan Sake and Shochu Makers Association |access-date=2019-08-08|archive-date=July 30, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190730174108/http://www.japansake.or.jp/sake/english/howto/process.html|url-status=dead}}</ref>

On the second day, the mixture stands for a day to let the yeast multiply.<ref name="JSSMA" />

The second step (the third day of the process), called {{tlit|ja|nakazoe}}, involves the addition of a second batch of {{tlit|ja|kōji}}, steamed rice, and water to the mixture.<ref name="JSSMA" /> On the fourth day of the fermentation, the third step of the process, called {{tlit|ja|tomezoe}}, takes place.<ref name="JSSMA" /> Here, the third and final batch of kōji, steamed rice, and water is added to the mixture, followed by up to ten days or so of additional fermentation to complete the three-step process.<ref name="JSSMA" />

The multiple parallel fermentation process of sake brewing, where starch is converted into glucose followed by immediate conversion into alcohol,<ref name="en-tradition" /> is unique to it.<ref name="JSSMA" /> This distinguishes sake from other brewed alcoholic beverages like beer because it occurs in a single vat, whereas with beer, for instance, starch-to-glucose conversion and glucose-to-alcohol conversion occur in separate vats.<ref name="en-tradition" /> The breakdown of starch into glucose is caused by the {{Nihongo3|||kōji-kin}} fungus, while the conversion of glucose into alcohol is caused by yeast.<ref name="en-tradition" /> Due to the yeast being available as soon as the glucose is produced, the conversion of glucose to alcohol is very efficient in sake brewing.<ref name="en-tradition" /> This results in sake having a generally higher alcohol content than other types of beer or wine.<ref name="en-tradition">{{Cite web|url=https://en-tradition.com/sake/heikou.html|title=Multiple parallel fermentation: Japanese Sake|website=en-tradition.com|access-date=2019-08-08|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190808040615/https://en-tradition.com/sake/heikou.html|archive-date=August 8, 2019|url-status=dead}}</ref>

After the fermentation process is complete, the fermented {{tlit|ja|moromi}} is pressed to remove the sake [[Lees (fermentation)|lees]] and then pasteurized and filtered for color.<ref name="JSSMA" /> The sake is then stored in bottles under cold conditions (see "Maturation" below).<ref name="JSSMA" />

The process of making sake can range from 60 to 90 days (2–3 months), while the fermentation alone can take two weeks.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://sake-world.com/about-sake/how-sake-is-made/sake-brewing-process/|title=Sake brewing process|last=Gauntner|first=John|website=Sake World|date=September 29, 2014|language=en-US|access-date=2019-08-08}}</ref> On the other hand, ''[[#Special-designation sake|ginjō-shu]]'' takes about 30 days for fermentation alone.<ref name="ginjo"/>

=== Maturation ===
Like other brewed beverages, sake tends to benefit from a period of storage. Nine to twelve months are required for the sake to mature. Maturation is caused by physical and chemical factors such as oxygen supply, the broad application of external heat, nitrogen oxides, aldehydes, and amino acids, among other unknown factors.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=National Research Institute of Brewing|date=March 2017|title=Sake Brewing: The Integration of Science and Technology|url=http://www.nrib.go.jp/English/sake/pdf/SakeNo02_en.pdf|journal=The Story of Sake}}</ref>

===''Tōji''===
{{Nihongo||杜氏|Tōji}} is the job title of the sake [[Brewing|brewer]]. There are various theories about the origin of the word, but the most popular is that it is a corruption of the word {{Nihongo||刀自|tōji}}, which was used for housewives and elderly women who supervised ''[[miko]]'' (shrine maidens). This is because sake brewing was the work of housewives at home and ''miko'' at [[Shinto shrine|Shinto shrines]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.osake.or.jp/sake/140312.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220520103254/https://www.osake.or.jp/sake/140312.html|script-title=ja:秋田の杜氏の秘密 杜氏（とうじ）とは|language=ja|publisher=Akita Sake Brewers Association.|date=12 March 2014|archive-date=20 May 2022|access-date=6 February 2023}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.gekkeikan.co.jp/enjoy/sake/industry/industry03.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220705162609/https://www.gekkeikan.co.jp/enjoy/sake/industry/industry03.html|script-title=ja:杜氏と蔵人 杜氏に匹敵する技を持つ蔵元の酒造技能者|language=ja|publisher=[[Gekkeikan]]|archive-date=5 July 2022|access-date=6 February 2023}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://sakestreet.com/ja/media/what-is-toji|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220930060512/https://sakestreet.com/ja/media/what-is-toji|script-title=ja:日本酒造りの責任者「杜氏」とは？ - 杜氏の仕事から杜氏の流派 蔵人たちの役職まで|language=ja|publisher=Sake Street|date=11 December 2021|archive-date=30 September 2022|access-date=6 February 2023}}</ref> It is a highly respected job in the [[Culture of Japan|Japanese society]], with {{tlit|ja|tōji}} being regarded like [[Music of Japan|musicians]] or [[Japanese painting|painters]]. The title of {{tlit|ja|tōji}} was historically passed from father to son. Today new {{tlit|ja|tōji}} are either veteran brewery workers or are trained at universities. While modern breweries with cooling tanks operate year-round, most old-fashioned sake breweries are seasonal, operating only in the cool winter months. During the summer and fall, most {{tlit|ja|tōji}} work elsewhere, commonly on farms, only periodically returning to the brewery to supervise storage conditions or bottling operations.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.esake.com/Knowledge/Ingredients/People/people.html|title=The People|publisher=eSake}}</ref>

==Varieties==
===Special-designation sake===
There are two basic types of sake: {{nihongo3|ordinary sake|普通酒|'''Futsū-shu'''}} and {{nihongo3|special-designation sake|特定名称酒|'''Tokutei meishō-shu'''}}. {{tlit|ja|Futsū-shu}} is the equivalent of [[table wine]] and accounts for 57% of sake production as of 2020.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.nta.go.jp/taxes/sake/shiori-gaikyo/shiori/2022/pdf/024.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220331113458/https://www.nta.go.jp/taxes/sake/shiori-gaikyo/shiori/2022/pdf/024.pdf|script-title=ja:付表2 特定名称の清酒のタイプ別製成数量の推移表|language=ja|publisher=National Tax Agency|archive-date=31 March 2022}}</ref> {{tlit|ja|Tokutei meishō-shu}} refers to premium sake distinguished by the degree to which the rice has been polished and the added percentage of brewer's alcohol or the absence of such additives. There are eight varieties of special-designation sake.<ref name="nta">{{cite web|url=https://www.nta.go.jp/taxes/sake/hyoji/seishu/gaiyo/02.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220528113430/https://www.nta.go.jp/taxes/sake/hyoji/seishu/gaiyo/02.htm|script-title=ja:「清酒の製法品質表示基準」の概要|language=ja|publisher=National Tax Agency Japan|archive-date=28 May 2022}}</ref>

{{Nihongo||吟醸|'''Ginjō'''}} is sake made using a special method called {{Nihongo||吟醸造り|ginjō-zukuri}}, in which rice is slowly fermented for about 30 days at a low temperature of 5 to 10 degrees [[Celsius]] (41 to 50 degrees [[Fahrenheit]]).<ref name="ginjo"/> Sake made in ''ginjō-zukuri'' is characterized by fruity flavors like apples, bananas, melons, grapes, peaches, pineapples, citrus, etc. In general, the flavor of sake tends to deteriorate when it is affected by [[Ultraviolet|ultraviolet rays]] or high temperatures, especially for sake made in ''ginjō-zukuri'' and un[[Pasteurization|pasteurized]] ''[[#Different handling after fermentation|namazake]]''. Therefore, it is recommended that sake with the name ''ginjō'' be transported and stored in cold storage. It is also recommended to drink chilled to maximize its fruity flavor.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.sawanotsuru.co.jp/site/nihonshu-columm/enjoy/how-to-keep-nihonshu/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220517095317/https://www.sawanotsuru.co.jp/site/nihonshu-columm/enjoy/how-to-keep-nihonshu/|script-title=ja:日本酒の正しい保存方法は？保存時のポイントは紫外線と温度管理|language=ja|publisher=[[Sawanotsuru]]|date=3 December 2018|archive-date=17 May 2022}}</ref><ref name="sawafruit">{{cite web|url=https://www.sawanotsuru.co.jp/site/nihonshu-columm/knowledge/what-do-you-mean-by-fruity-sake/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230206111701/https://www.sawanotsuru.co.jp/site/nihonshu-columm/knowledge/what-do-you-mean-by-fruity-sake/|script-title=ja:「フルーティな日本酒」とは？意味やおすすめの日本酒をご紹介！|language=ja|publisher=Sawanotsuru|date=25 November 2020|archive-date=6 February 2023|access-date=6 February 2023}}</ref>

{{Nihongo||純米|'''Junmai'''}} is a term used for the sake that is made of pure rice wine without any additional distilled alcohol.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Jennings |first1=Holly |title=Asian Cocktails: Creative Drinks Inspired by the East |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CZXTAgAAQBAJ&pg=PT117|isbn=9781462905256 |year= 2012 |publisher=Tuttle }}</ref> Special-designation sake which is not labeled {{tlit|ja|Junmai}} has an appropriate amount of distilled alcohol added. The maximum amount of distilled alcohol added to {{tlit|ja|futsū-shu}} is 50% of the rice weight, mainly to increase the volume, while the maximum amount of distilled alcohol added to special-designation sake is 10% of the rice weight, to make the sake more aromatic and light in taste, and to prevent the growth of lactic acid bacteria, which deteriorate the flavor of the sake.<ref name="jozo"/><ref name="nta"/> It is often misunderstood that the added distilled alcohol is of poor quality, but that is not the case with the addition of distilled alcohol to special-designation sake. Specifically, 78.3% of the sake entered in the {{Nihongo3|National New Sake Appraisal|全国新酒鑑評会|Zenkoku shinshu kanpyōkai}}, the largest sake contest, had distilled alcohol added, and 91.1% of the winning sake had it added.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://prtimes.jp/main/html/rd/p/000000003.000043100.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220428202209/https://prtimes.jp/main/html/rd/p/000000003.000043100.html|script-title=ja:老舗酒蔵×日本酒ベンチャー×若手蒸留家が共同開発 楽しく、美味しく、学べる酒「すごい!!アル添」を2月12日販売開始|language=ja|publisher=PR Times|date=12 February 2022|archive-date=28 April 2022}}</ref> However, the most important aspect of the contest is the brewing technique, not whether it tastes good or not.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://jp.sake-times.com/think/study/sake_g_shinsyu-kanpyokai|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220628180639/https://jp.sake-times.com/think/study/sake_g_shinsyu-kanpyokai|script-title=ja:金賞受賞酒が必ずしも「おいしい」とは限らない？ ──「全国新酒鑑評会」の実態と意義|language=ja|publisher=Sake Times|date=17 May 2017|archive-date=28 June 2022}}</ref>

Sake made with highly milled rice has a strong aroma and a light taste without miscellaneous taste. It maximizes the fruity flavor of ''ginjō''. On the other hand, sake made with less milled rice but with attention to various factors tends to have a rich sweetness and flavor derived from rice.<ref name="yamada"/><ref name="nihonshula"/>

In 2018, Satake Corporation developed a new type of rice milling machine that allows dramatically faster and more focused milling of the long axis portion of rice, which has a high mineral content and adds a miscellaneous taste to the flavor. This has made it possible to achieve the same flavor in a ''ginjō-shu'' with a 60% polishing ratio as in a conventional ''daiginjō-shu'' with a 40% polishing ratio.<ref name = "nikkei241224"/><ref name = "st041120"/><ref name = "st260822"/>

The certification requirements for special-designation sake must meet the conditions listed below, as well as the superior aroma and color specified by the [[National Tax Agency]].<ref name="nta"/> The listing below often has the highest price at the top:
{| class="wikitable"
|-
!Special Designation<ref name="nta"/>
!Ingredients<ref name="nta"/>
!Rice Polishing Ratio (percent rice remaining)<ref name="nta"/>
!Percentage of Kōji rice<ref name="nta"/>
|-
|{{nihongo3|Pure rice, Great Choicest brew|純米大吟醸酒|'''Junmai Daiginjō-shu'''}}<ref name="ginjo"/>
| Rice, Kōji rice
| 50% or less, and produced by slowly fermenting rice at low temperatures of 5 to 10 degrees Celsius.<ref name="ginjo"/>
| At least 15%
|-
|{{nihongo3|Great Choicest brew|大吟醸酒|'''Daiginjō-shu'''}}
| Rice, Kōji rice, Distilled alcohol<ref group="note" name="alcohol"/>
| 50% or less, and produced by slowly fermenting rice at low temperatures of 5 to 10 degrees Celsius.<ref name="ginjo"/>
| At least 15%
|-
|{{nihongo3|Pure rice, Choicest brew|純米吟醸酒|'''Junmai Ginjō-shu'''}}
| Rice, Kōji rice
| 60% or less, and produced by slowly fermenting rice at low temperatures of 5 to 10 degrees Celsius.<ref name="ginjo"/>
| At least 15%
|-
|{{nihongo3|Choicest brew|吟醸酒|'''Ginjō-shu'''}}
| Rice, Kōji rice, Distilled alcohol<ref group="note" name="alcohol">The weight of added alcohol must be below 10% of the weight of the rice (after polishing) used in the brewing process.</ref>
| 60% or less, and produced by slowly fermenting rice at low temperatures of 5 to 10 degrees Celsius.<ref name="ginjo"/>
| At least 15%
|-
|{{nihongo3|Special pure rice|特別純米酒|'''Tokubetsu Junmai-shu'''}}
| Rice, Kōji rice
| 60% or less, or produced by special brewing method<ref group="note" name="tokubetsu">A special brewing method needs to be explained on the label.</ref>
| At least 15%
|-
|{{nihongo3|Special Genuine brew|特別本醸造酒|'''Tokubetsu Honjōzō-shu'''}}
| Rice, Kōji rice, Distilled alcohol<ref group="note" name="alcohol"/>
| 60% or less, or produced by special brewing method<ref group="note" name="tokubetsu"/>
| At least 15%
|-
|{{nihongo3|Pure rice|純米酒|'''Junmai-shu'''}}
| Rice, Kōji rice
| Regulations do not stipulate a rice polishing ratio<ref>WSET Level 3 Award in Sake Study Guide</ref>
| At least 15%
|-
|{{nihongo3|Genuine brew|本醸造酒|'''Honjōzō-shu'''}}
| Rice, Kōji rice, Distilled alcohol<ref group="note" name="alcohol"/>
| 70% or less
| At least 15%
|}
{{Reflist |group="note"}}
{{Reflist |group="note"/}}

===Methods of preparing the starter mash===
* {{Nihongo||菩提酛|'''Bodaimoto'''}} is a method used by [[Shōryaku-ji]] in [[Nara (city)|Nara]] to make starter mash during the [[Muromachi period]] (1336–1573). In recent years, some sake breweries have begun to revive this method based on documents from the Muromachi period.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://xtrend.nikkei.com/atcl/contents/18/00765/00002/?i_cid=nbpnxr_child|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230121033604/https://xtrend.nikkei.com/atcl/contents/18/00765/00002/?i_cid=nbpnxr_child|script-title=ja:「風の森」蔵元の油長酒造が原点回帰 室町時代の寺院醸造に挑む|language=ja|publisher=Nikkei Business Publications, Inc.|date=20 January 2023|archive-date=21 January 2023}}</ref>
* {{Nihongo||生酛|'''Kimoto'''}} is the traditional orthodox method for preparing the starter mash, which includes the laborious process of using poles to mix it into a paste, known as {{tlit|ja|yama-oroshi}}. This method was the standard for 300 years.
* {{Nihongo||山廃|'''Yamahai'''}} is a simplified version of the {{tlit|ja|kimoto}} method, introduced in the early 1900s. {{tlit|ja|Yamahai}} skips the step of making a paste out of the starter mash. That step of the {{tlit|ja|kimoto}} method is known as {{tlit|ja|yama-oroshi}}, and the full name for {{tlit|ja|yamahai}} is {{Nihongo||山卸廃止|yama-oroshi haishi}}, meaning 'discontinuation of {{tlit|ja|yama-oroshi}}. While the {{tlit|ja|yamahai}} method was originally developed to speed production time compared to the {{tlit|ja|kimoto}} method, it is slower than the modern method and is now used only in specialty brews for the earthy flavors it produces.
* {{nihongo3|'quick fermentation'|速醸|'''Sokujō'''}},  is the modern method of preparing the starter mash. Lactic acid, produced naturally in the two slower traditional methods, is added to the starter to inhibit unwanted bacteria. {{tlit|ja|Sokujō}} sake tends to have a lighter flavor than {{tlit|ja|kimoto}} or {{tlit|ja|yamahai}}.

===Different handling after fermentation===
[[File:Sake, Hanaabi, Yamada nishiki, Junmai-daiginjō muroka nama genshu. 日本酒 花陽浴とオーシャン99.jpg|thumb|The blue sake bottle displays {{Nihongo||山田錦|"[[Yamada Nishiki]]"}} and {{Nihongo||純米大吟醸|"Junmai Daiginjo"}} on the bottom label and {{Nihongo||瓶囲無濾過生原酒|"Bingakoi muroka nama genshu"}} and {{Nihongo|"requiring refrigeration"|要冷蔵}} on the top label. The label on the pink sake bottle indicates ''Usunigori muroka nama genshu''.]]
[[File:Unfiltered Sake at Gyu-Kaku.jpg|thumb|[[Nigori]], or unfiltered sake]]
The characteristics of sake listed below are generally described on the label attached to the sake bottle. For example, {{Nihongo||しぼりたて無濾過生原酒|"Shiboritate muroka nama genshu"}} indicates that all the conditions of {{tlit|ja|shiboritate}}, {{tlit|ja|muroka}}, {{tlit|ja|namazake}} and {{tlit|ja|genshu}} below are satisfied.
* {{Nihongo||生酒|'''Namazake'''}} is sake that has not been [[Pasteurization|pasteurized]]. It requires refrigerated storage and has a shorter shelf-life than pasteurized sake. Since {{tlit|ja|namazake}} is not pasteurized, it is generally characterized by a strong, fresh, sweet, and fruity flavor that is easy for beginners to enjoy. Also, because fermentation continues in the bottle, the change in flavor can be enjoyed over time, and some are effervescent due to the production of gases during fermentation.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.twellv.co.jp/program/tabi/sushi/article-sushi/sushi-article-064/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220625235518/https://www.twellv.co.jp/program/tabi/sushi/article-sushi/sushi-article-064/|script-title=ja:生酒は鮮度が命 おいしい飲み方や保存方法を覚えておこう|language=ja|publisher=World Hi-Vision Channel, Inc.|date=13 May 2019|archive-date=25 June 2022}}</ref>
* {{Nihongo||原酒|'''Genshu'''}} is undiluted sake. Most sake is diluted with water after brewing to lower the alcohol content from 18 to 20% down to 14–16%, but {{tlit|ja|genshu}} is not.
* {{Nihongo||無濾過|'''Muroka'''}} means unfiltered. It refers to sake that has not been carbon filtered but that ''has'' been pressed and separated from the lees and thus is clear, not cloudy. Carbon filtration can remove desirable flavors and odors as well as bad ones, thus {{tlit|ja|muroka}} sake has stronger flavors than filtered varieties.
* {{Nihongo||直汲み|'''Jikagumi'''}}  is sake made by squeezing mash and putting the freshly made sake directly into a bottle without transferring it to a tank. It is generally effervescent and has a strong flavor because it is filled in the bottle with as little exposure to the air as possible to the freshest liquor that continues to ferment. It is a sake that maximizes the advantages of {{tlit|ja|namazake}} or {{tlit|ja|shiboritate}}.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20220517040420/https://www.kandaya.biz/product-group/17 {{lang|ja|直汲み、槽場汲みの日本酒.}}] {{in lang|ja}}. Kandaya</ref>
* {{Nihongo||濁り酒|'''[[Nigori|Nigorizake]]'''}} is cloudy sake. The sake is passed through a loose mesh to separate it from the mash. In the production process of {{tlit|ja|nigorizake}}, rough cloth or colander is used to separate mash. It is not filtered after that, and there is much rice sediment in the bottle. It is generally characterized by its rich sweetness derived from rice. ''Nigorizake'' is sometimes unpasteurized ''namazake'', which means that it is still fermenting and has an effervescent quality. Therefore, shaking the bottle or exposing it to high temperatures may cause the sake to spurt out of the bottle, so care should be taken when opening the bottle. When first opening the bottle, the cap should be slightly opened and then closed repeatedly to release the gas that has filled the bottle little by little.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://jp.sake-times.com/think/accomplishment/sake_g_nigoriakekata|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220819111555/https://jp.sake-times.com/think/accomplishment/sake_g_nigoriakekata|script-title=ja:【必見】にごり生酒を噴きこぼれないように開ける方法|language=ja|publisher=Sake Times|date=12 March 2015|archive-date=19 August 2022}}</ref> To maximize the flavor of ''nigorizake'', there are some tips on how to drink it. First drink only the clear supernatant, then close the cap and slowly turn the bottle upside down to mix the sediment with the clear sake to enjoy the change in flavor.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://sakenoshizuku.com/how-to-drink-nigorizake|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220522143526/https://sakenoshizuku.com/how-to-drink-nigorizake|script-title=ja:実は1つで2度おいしい！日本酒にごり酒のおいしい飲み方はコレ！|language=ja|publisher=Sakeno no Shizuku|date=3 November 2020|archive-date=22 May 2022}}</ref>
* {{Nihongo||おりがらみ|'''Origarami'''}} is a sake with less turbidity than {{tlit|ja|nigorizake}}. {{tlit|ja|Origarami}} is filtered differently from {{tlit|ja|nigorizake}} and is filtered in the same way as ordinary sake. The reason mash lees are precipitated in the bottle is that the process of making ordinary sake, in which lees are precipitated and the supernatant is scooped up and bottled to complete the product, is omitted. Sake that is lightly cloudy like {{tlit|ja|origarami}} is also called {{Nihongo||薄濁り|'''usunigori'''}} or {{Nihongo||霞酒|'''kasumizake'''}}.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://tanoshiiosake.jp/10049|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221215150700/https://tanoshiiosake.jp/10049|script-title=ja: 「おりがらみ」とはどんな日本酒？ にごり酒とどう違う|language=ja|publisher=Tanoshii osake.jp|date=27 October 2022|archive-date=15 December 2022}}</ref>
* {{Nihongo3|'clear/clean sake'|清酒|'''Seishu'''}} is the Japanese legal definition of sake and refers to sake in which the solids have been strained out, leaving clear liquid. Thus {{tlit|ja|doburoku}} (see below) is not {{tlit|ja|seishu}} and therefore are not actually sake under Japanese law. Although {{tlit|ja|Nigorizake}} is cloudy, it is legally classified as {{tlit|ja|seishu}} because it goes through the process of filtering through a mesh.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://tanoshiiosake.jp/9468|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220703052951/https://tanoshiiosake.jp/9468|script-title=ja:にごり酒とは？ 定義から種類、飲み方、おすすめ銘柄まで紹介|language=ja|publisher=Tanoshii osake.jp|date=23 December 2022|archive-date=3 July 2022}}</ref>
* {{Nihongo||古酒|'''Koshu'''}} is 'aged sake'. Most sake does not age well, but this specially made type can age for decades, turning yellow and acquiring a honeyed flavor.
* {{Nihongo||樽酒|'''Taruzake'''}} is sake aged in wooden barrels or bottled in wooden casks. The wood used is {{Nihongo|''[[Cryptomeria]]''|杉|sugi}}, which is also known as Japanese cedar. Sake casks are often tapped ceremonially to open buildings, businesses, parties, etc. Because the wood imparts a strong flavor, premium sake is rarely used for this type.
* {{Nihongo3|'freshly pressed'|搾立て|'''Shiboritate'''}} refers to sake that has been shipped without the traditional six-month aging/maturation period. The result is usually a more acidic, "greener" sake.
* {{Nihongo||袋吊り|'''Fukurozuri'''}} is a method of separating sake from the lees without external pressure by hanging the mash in bags and allowing the liquid to drip out under its weight. Sake produced this way is sometimes called {{Nihongo||雫酒|shizukuzake|meaning 'drip sake'}}.
* {{Nihongo||斗瓶囲い|'''Tobingakoi'''}} is sake pressed into {{convert|18|L|impgal USgal|sp=us|adj=on}} bottles ({{tlit|ja|tobin}}) with the brewer selecting the best sake of the batch for shipping.

===Others===
* {{Nihongo||甘酒|'''[[Amazake]]'''}} is a traditional sweet, low- or non-alcoholic Japanese drink made from fermented rice.
* {{Nihongo||濁酒|'''Doburoku'''}} is the classic home-brew style of sake (although home brewing is illegal in Japan). It is created by simply adding {{tlit|ja|kōji}} mold to steamed rice and water and letting the mixture ferment. It is sake made without separating mash. The resulting sake is somewhat like a chunkier version of {{tlit|ja|nigorizake}}.
* '''{{visible anchor|Jizake|text={{lang|ja-latn|Jizake}}}}''' ({{lang|ja|地酒}}) is locally brewed sake, the equivalent of [[Craft beer|microbrewing]] beer.
* {{Nihongo||貴醸酒|'''Kijōshu'''}} is sake made using sake instead of water. A typical sake is made using 130 liters of water for every 100 kilograms of rice, while ''kijōshu'' is made using 70 liters of water and 60 liters of sake for every 100 kilograms of rice. ''Kijōshu'' is characterized by its unique rich sweetness, aroma and thickness, which can be best brought out when aged to an amber color. ''kijōshu'' is often more expensive than ordinary sake because it was developed in 1973 by the National Tax Agency's brewing research institute for the purpose of making expensive sake that can be served at government banquets for state guests. The method of making sake using sake instead of water is similar to the sake brewing method called ''shiori'' described in the ''[[Engishiki]]'' compiled in 927. Because the term ''kijōshu'' is trademarked, sake makers not affiliated with the {{Nihongo|Kijōshu Association|貴醸酒協会}} cannot use the name. Therefore, when non-member sake manufacturers sell ''kijōshu'', they use terms such as {{Nihongo||再醸仕込み|saijō jikomi}} to describe the process.<ref name="kijoshu">{{cite web|url=http://kangiken.net/backnumber/5507_eturan.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201101120307/http://kangiken.net/backnumber/5507_eturan.pdf|script-title=ja:月刊食品と容器 2014 Vol. 55. No. 7. 貴醸酒|language=ja|author=Kojiro Takahashi|publisher=缶詰技術研究会|pages=408–411|archive-date=1 November 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://sakestreet.com/ja/media/learn-kijoshu|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220625162448/https://sakestreet.com/ja/media/learn-kijoshu|script-title=ja:リッチな甘みのデザート酒 - 「貴醸酒」の製法と味わいの特徴を学ぶ|language=ja|author=Kazuha Sera|publisher=Sake street|date=14 April 2020|archive-date=25 June 2022}}</ref>
* {{Nihongo||黒酒|'''Kuroshu'''}} is sake made from unpolished rice (i.e., brown rice), and is more like ''[[huangjiu]]''.
* {{Nihongo||低精白酒|'''Teiseihaku-shu'''}} is sake with a deliberately high rice-polishing ratio. It is generally held that the lower the rice polishing ratio (the percent weight after polishing), the better the potential of the sake. Circa 2005, {{tlit|ja|teiseihaku-shu}} has been produced as a specialty sake made with high rice-polishing ratios, usually around 80%, to produce sake with the characteristic flavor of rice itself.
* {{Nihongo||赤い酒|'''Akaisake'''}}, literally "red sake", is produced by using [[red yeast rice]] {{tlit|ja|kōji}} {{nihongo|''[[Monascus purpureus]]''|紅麹|benikōji}}, giving the sake a pink-tinted appearance similar to [[Rosé|rosé wine]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.japantimes.co.jp/life/2001/11/25/food/hey-thats-a-sake-of-a-different-color/|title = Hey, that's a sake of a different color|date = November 25, 2001}}</ref>

Some other terms commonly used in connection with sake:
* {{Nihongo||日本酒度|'''Nihonshu-do'''}}, also called the Sake Meter Value or SMV
::<math>\text{SMV} = \left( \left| \frac{1}\text{specific gravity} \right| - 1 \right) \times 1443</math>
:[[Relative density|Specific gravity]] is measured on a scale weighing the same volume of water at {{convert|4|C}} and sake at {{convert|15|C}}. The sweeter the sake, the lower the number (or more negative); the drier the sake, the higher the number. When the SMV was first used, 0 was the point between sweet and dry sake. Now +3 is considered neutral.
* {{Nihongo||精米歩合|'''Seimai-buai'''}} is the rice polishing ratio (or milling rate), the percentage of weight remaining after polishing. Generally, the lower the number, the higher the sake's complexity. A lower percentage usually results in a fruitier and more complex sake, whereas a higher percentage will taste more like rice.
* {{Nihongo||粕|'''[[Sake kasu|Kasu]]'''}} are pressed sake lees, the solids left after pressing and filtering. These are used for making [[tsukemono|pickles]], livestock feed, and [[shōchū]], and as an ingredient in dishes like kasu soup.

==Craft sake==
[[File:Craft sake, Ine to Agave, クラフトサケの稲とアガベ.jpg|thumb|Ine to Agave Brewery's Craft sake. The product on the left is made with [[hassaku]] as a secondary ingredient, the one in the middle with [[Humulus lupulus|hops]], and the one on the right with [[coffee]].]]
In Japan, {{Nihongo|craft sake|クラフトサケ|kurafuto sake}} is sake that is brewed based on sake production techniques, but produced in a manner that differs from the traditional sake production process as defined by the {{ill|Liquor Tax Law|ja|酒税法}}. It is classified as {{Nihongo|"Other brewed alcoholic beverage"|その他の醸造酒|sonotano jōzōshu}} rather than {{Nihongo|"sake"|清酒|seishu}} under the Liquor Tax Law, but is generally recognized as sake.
The Liquor Tax Law definition does not allow sake to be made with secondary ingredients, but since craft sake is not bound by the Liquor Tax Law definition, fruits and herbs are often used as secondary ingredients. It can achieve a different flavor from conventional sake by using secondary ingredients, and can use local products from the brewery's area as secondary ingredients.<ref name="nk210722">{{Cite web|script-title=ja:「日本酒業界を救いたい」　“クラフトサケ”で再起狙う協会発足|url=https://xtrend.nikkei.com/atcl/contents/watch/00013/01916/|language=ja|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221204050843/https://xtrend.nikkei.com/atcl/contents/watch/00013/01916/|publisher=[[Nikkei, Inc.]]|date=21 July 2022|archive-date=4 December 2022|access-date=8 February 2025 }}</ref><ref name="nli30924">{{Cite web |script-title=ja:お酒についてシラフで考える－清酒酒造免許のない日本酒造り－|language=ja|url=https://www.nli-research.co.jp/report/detail/id=79818?site=nli|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240930124506/https://www.nli-research.co.jp/report/detail/id=79818?site=nli|publisher=NLI Research Institute|date=30 September 2024|archive-date=30 September 2024|access-date=8 February 2025 }}</ref> For example, the Ine to Agave Brewery uses [[agave]], [[Humulus lupulus|hops]], [[apple]]s, [[grape]]s, [[matcha]], [[honey]], [[coffee]], etc. as secondary ingredients.<ref name="ss121124">{{Cite web |author=Saki Kimura|script-title=ja:日本酒と地方の未来を切り拓く酒造りとまちづくり - 秋田県・稲とアガベ醸造所|language=ja|url=https://sakestreet.com/ja/media/sakagura-inetoagave-brewery-akita|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241208115620/https://sakestreet.com/ja/media/sakagura-inetoagave-brewery-akita|publisher=SAKE Street, Inc.|date=12 November 2024|archive-date=8 December 2024|access-date=8 February 2025 }}</ref>

In Japan, the Liquor Tax Law prohibits new entrants from obtaining a new sake brewing license to sell sake in Japan. If a new entrant wants to start brewing sake, it must either take over an existing brewery or produce sake for export only. Therefore, young entrepreneurs who want to make sake tend to start making craft sake, which is easier to enter. The Japan Craft Sake Breweries Association was founded in 2022 under the leadership of Shuhei Okazumi of Ine to Agave Brewery. The association hopes to appeal to young people and women who have not been frequent sake drinkers, and due to the high added value, many craft sake are priced at about twice the price of traditional sake.<ref name="nk210722"/><ref name="nli30924"/>

==Taste and flavor==
The label on a bottle of sake gives a rough indication of its taste. Terms found on the label may include {{Nihongo||日本酒度|nihonshu-do}}, {{Nihongo||酸度|san-do}}, and {{Nihongo||アミノ酸度|aminosan-do}}.<ref>{{cite web | title = The Nihonshu-do; Acidity in Sake | publisher = Sake World | date = 2002-03-01 | first = John | last = Gauntner | issue = 29| url = http://www.sake-world.com/html/sw-2002_2.html | access-date = 2014-02-27|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140325113057/http://sake-world.com/html/sw-2002_2.html|archive-date=March 25, 2014 |url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name="sanamino">{{cite web|url=https://sakestreet.com/ja/media/how-to-read-data-on-sake-labels|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220930063051/https://sakestreet.com/ja/media/how-to-read-data-on-sake-labels|script-title=ja:ベルの数字から想像する、日本酒の味わい - アルコール度数、日本酒度、酸度、アミノ酸度|language=ja|publisher=Sake Street|date=15 May 2020|archive-date=30 September 2022|access-date=6 February 2023}}</ref>

{{Nihongo||日本酒度|Nihonshu-do}} or Sake Meter Value (SMV) is calculated from the [[Relative density|specific gravity]] of the sake and indicates the sugar and alcohol content of the sake on an arbitrary scale. Typical values are between −3 (sweet) and +10 (dry), equivalent to specific gravities ranging between 1.007 and 0.998, though the maximum range of {{tlit|ja|Nihonshu-do}} can go much beyond that. The {{tlit|ja|Nihonshu-do}} must be considered together with {{tlit|ja|San-do}} to determine the overall perception of dryness-sweetness, richness-lightness characteristics of a sake (for example, a higher level of acidity can make a sweet sake taste drier than it actually is).<ref>{{cite web |title=What's Sake Meter Value (SMV)? |url=http://www.ozekisake.com/learn/sake-meter-value.php |website=Ozeki Sake |access-date=27 May 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Sake Taste and Sake Scale |url=https://sakeexpert.com/saketaste.php |website=sakeexpert.com |access-date=27 May 2020 |archive-date=July 16, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200716074529/http://www.sakeexpert.com/saketaste.php |url-status=dead }}</ref>

{{Nihongo||酸度|San-do}} indicates the [[concentration]] of acid, which is determined by [[titration]] with [[sodium hydroxide]] solution. This number equals the milliliters of titrant required to neutralize the acid in {{convert|10|mL|abbr=on}} of sake.<ref name="sanamino"/>

{{Nihongo||アミノ酸度|Aminosan-do}} indicates a taste of [[umami]] or savoriness. As the proportion of [[amino acid]]s rises, the sake tastes more savory. This number is determined by titration of the sake with a mixture of sodium hydroxide solution and [[formaldehyde]] and is equal to the milliliters of titrant required to neutralize the amino acids in 10 mL of sake.<ref name="sanamino"/>

Sake can have many [[Aroma of wine|flavor notes]], such as fruits, flowers, herbs, and spices. Many types of sake have notes of apple from [[Ethyl hexanoate|ethyl caproate]] and banana from [[isoamyl acetate]], particularly {{nihongo||吟醸酒|ginjō-shu}}.<ref>{{Cite web|title=A Moment of Relaxation with the Aromas of Sake {{!}} GEKKEIKAN KYOTO SINCE 1637|url=https://www.gekkeikan.co.jp/english/gekkeikan/rd.html|access-date=2021-10-14|website=www.gekkeikan.co.jp}}</ref> In addition to apples and bananas, other fruits mentioned as flavor notes for fruity sake, especially ''ginjō-shu'', include melons, grapes, peaches, pineapples, citrus, etc.<ref name="sawafruit"/>

==Serving sake==
{{Main|Sake set|:ja:燗酒}}
[[File:Overflowing sake glass in masu.jpg|thumb|Overflowing glass inside a {{tlit|ja|masu}}]]
[[File:Japanese - Sake Ewer from a Portable Picnic Set - Walters 49957 - Three Quarter View A.jpg|thumb|"Sake Ewer from a Portable Picnic Set", Japan, c. 1830–1839]]

In Japan, sake is served {{Nihongo|chilled|冷酒|reishu}}, at {{Nihongo|room temperature|常温|jōon}}, or {{Nihongo|heated|熱燗|atsukan}}, depending on the preference of the drinker, the characteristics of the sake, and the season. Typically, hot sake is a winter drink, and high-grade sake is not usually drunk hot because the flavors and aromas may be lost. Most lower-quality sake is served hot because that is the traditional way, and it often tastes better that way, not so that flaws are covered up. There are gradations of temperature both for chilling and heating, about every {{convert|5|C-change}}, with hot sake generally served around {{convert|50|C}}, and chilled sake around {{convert|10|C}}, like white wine. {{Nihongo|Hot sake that has cooled|燗冷まし|kanzamashi}} may be reheated.

Sake is traditionally drunk from small cups called {{tlit|ja|choko}} or {{Nihongo||お猪口|o-choko}} and poured into the {{tlit|ja|choko}} from ceramic flasks called {{tlit|ja|tokkuri}}. This is very common for hot sake, where the flask is heated in hot water, and the small cups ensure that the sake does not get cold in the cup, but it may also be used for chilled sake. Traditionally one does not pour one's own drink, which is known as {{Nihongo||手酌|tejaku}}, but instead members of a party pour for each other, which is known as {{Nihongo||酌|shaku}}. This has relaxed in recent years but is generally observed on more formal occasions, such as business meals, and is still often observed for the first drink.

Another traditional cup is the ''[[Masu (measurement)|masu]]'', a box usually made of ''[[Chamaecyparis obtusa|hinoki]]'' or ''[[Cryptomeria|sugi]]'', which was originally used for measuring rice. The {{tlit|ja|masu}} holds exactly one ''[[Ge (unit)#Japan|gō]]'', {{convert|180.4|mL|floz|abbr=on}}, so the sake is served by filling the {{tlit|ja|masu}} to the brim; this is done for chilled or room temperature sake. In some Japanese restaurants, as a show of generosity, the server may put a glass inside the {{tlit|ja|masu}} or put the {{tlit|ja|masu}} on a saucer and pour until sake overflows and fills both containers.

Sake is traditionally served in units of {{tlit|ja|gō}}, and this is still common, but other sizes are sometimes also available.

Saucer-like cups called {{tlit|ja|sakazuki}} are also used, most commonly at weddings and other ceremonial occasions, such as the start of the year or the beginning of a [[kaiseki]] meal. In cheap bars, sake is often served at room temperature in glass tumblers and called {{Nihongo||コップ酒|koppu-zake}}. In more modern restaurants, wine glasses are also used, and recently footed glasses made specifically for premium sake have also come into use.

Traditionally sake is heated immediately before serving, but today restaurants may buy sake in boxes that can be heated in a specialized hot sake dispenser, thus allowing hot sake to be served immediately. However, this is detrimental to the flavor. There are also a variety of devices for heating sake and keeping it warm beyond the traditional {{tlit|ja|tokkuri}}.

Aside from being served straight, sake can be used as a mixer for [[cocktail]]s, such as [[tamagozake]], [[saketini]]s, or nogasake.<ref>''Ume Cocktail Menu''. Tucson, AZ: Ume Casino Del Sol, 2015. Print.{{ISBN?}}</ref> Outside of Japan, the [[sake bomb]], the origins of which are unclear,<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.lamag.com/digestblog/an-ode-to-the-sake-bomb/|title=An Ode to the Sake Bomb |date=2013-04-22|work=Los Angeles Magazine|access-date=2017-03-09|language=en-US}}</ref> has become a popular drink in bars and Asia-themed [[karaoke]] clubs.

The Japanese Sake Association encourages people to drink chaser water for their health, and the water is called Yawaragi-mizu.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://japansake.or.jp/sake/yawaragi/|title=Yawaragi|language=ja|website=japansake.or.jp}}</ref>

==Seasonality==
[[File:Uda Matsuyama06s3872.jpg|thumb|upright|{{Nihongo||杉玉|Sugitama}}, globes of cedar leaves, at a brewery]]
Because the cooler temperatures make it more difficult for bacteria to grow, sake brewing traditionally took place mainly in winter, and this was especially true from 1673 during the Edo period until the early 20th century during the Showa era.<ref name="lab1"/> While it can now be brewed year-round, seasonality is still associated with sake, particularly artisanal ones. The most visible symbol of this is the {{Nihongo||杉玉|sugitama}}, a globe of [[Cedrus|cedar]] leaves traditionally hung outside a brewery when the new sake is brewed. The leaves start green but turn brown over time, reflecting the maturation of the sake. These are now hung outside many restaurants serving sake. The new year's sake is called {{Nihongo3|'new sake'|新酒|shinshu}}, and when initially released in late winter or early spring, many brewers have a celebration known as {{Nihongo3|warehouse opening|蔵開き|kurabiraki}}. Traditionally sake was best transported in the cool spring to avoid spoilage in the summer heat, with a secondary transport in autumn, once the weather had cooled, known as {{Nihongo3|'cold wholesale distribution'|冷卸し|hiyaoroshi}}—this autumn sake has matured over the summer.

==Storage==
Sake is sold in volume units divisible by {{convert|180|mL|floz|abbr=on}} (one ''[[Ge (unit)|gō]]''), the [[Japanese units of measurement|traditional Japanese unit]] for [[Cup (unit)|cup size]].<ref>{{cite web| url = https://ustr.gov/sites/default/files/files/agreements/japan/Letter_Exchange_on_Alcoholic_Beverages.pdf| title = ''Letter Exchange between the ambassadors of Japan and the United States on Alcoholic Beverages'' (October 7, 2019)}}</ref> Sake is traditionally sold by the {{tlit|ja|gō}}-sized cup, or in a {{convert|1.8|L|floz|abbr=on}} (one ''[[Japanese units of measurement#Volume|shō]]'' or ten {{tlit|ja|gō}})-sized flask (called an {{tlit|ja|isshōbin}}, or 'one shō-measure bottle'). Today sake is also often sold in {{convert|720|mL|floz|abbr=on}} bottles, which are divisible into four {{tlit|ja|gō}}. Note that this is almost the same as the {{convert|750|mL|floz|abbr=on}} standard for [[wine bottle]]s, which is divisible into four quarter bottles (187ml). Particularly in convenience stores, sake (generally of cheap quality) may be sold in a small {{convert|360|mL|floz|abbr=on}} bottle or a single serving {{convert|180|mL|floz|abbr=on}} (one gō) {{Nihongo|glass with a pull-off top|カップ酒|kappu-zake}}.

Generally, it is best to keep sake refrigerated in a cool or dark room, as prolonged exposure to heat or direct light will lead to spoilage. Sake stored at a relatively high temperature can lead to the formation of [[diketopiperazine]], a cyclo (Pro-Leu) that makes it bitter as it ages<ref>(Lecture Note, October 2011).</ref> Sake has high microbiological stability due to its high content of ethanol, but instances of spoilage have occurred.  One of the microorganisms implicated in this spoilage is [[lactic acid bacteria]] (LAB) that has grown tolerant to ethanol and is referred to as {{tlit|ja|hiochi}}-bacteria.<ref>(Suzuki ''et al.'', 2008).</ref> Sake stored at room temperature is best consumed within a few months after purchase.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Sake Etiquette|url=http://www.esake.com/Sake-Food/Etiquette/etiquette.html|access-date=2021-12-15|website=www.esake.com}}</ref>

Sake can be stored for a long time due to its high alcohol content and has no use-by dates written on the bottle or label. However, there is a best before date for good drinking, and it depends on the type of sake, with the typical twice-pasteurized sake having a relatively long best before date. According to major sake brewer Gekkeikan, the best before date when unopened and stored in a dark place at about 20 degrees Celsius (68 degrees Fahrenheit) is one year after production for ''[[#Special-designation sake|futsū-shu]]'' and ''[[#Special-designation sake|honjōzō-shu]]'', 10 months for ''[[#Special-designation sake|ginjō-shu]]'', ''[[#Special-designation sake|junmai-shu]]'', and sake pasteurized only once, and up to eight months for special ''[[#Different handling after fermentation|namazake]]'' that can be distributed at room temperature.<ref name="geshoumi">{{cite web|url=https://www.gekkeikan.co.jp/enjoy/qa/sake/sake01.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221215155939/https://www.gekkeikan.co.jp/enjoy/qa/sake/sake01.html|script-title=ja:日本酒の賞味期間 吟醸酒は10カ月間 普通酒は1年間が目安|language=ja|publisher=Gekkeikan|archive-date=15 December 2022}}</ref> According to [[Sawanotsuru]], once pasteurized sake and unpasteurized ''namazake'' have a best before date of nine months after production.<ref name="sawashoumi">{{cite web|url=https://www.sawanotsuru.co.jp/site/nihonshu-columm/enjoy/freshness-date-sake/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190518222129/http://www.sawanotsuru.co.jp/site/nihonshu-columm/enjoy/freshness-date-sake/|script-title=ja:日本酒の賞味期限は？開栓前（未開封）／開栓（開封）後のおいしく飲める期間とは|trans-title=How much time do you have to enjoy drinking your sake?|language=ja|publisher=[[Sawanotsuru]]|date=30 June 2022|archive-date=18 May 2019}}</ref> Some sources also state that the best before date for unpasteurized ''namazake'' is three to six months after production. ''Namazake'' generally requires refrigeration at all times.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.twellv.co.jp/program/tabi/sushi/article-sushi/sushi-article-009/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220519182506/https://www.twellv.co.jp/program/tabi/sushi/article-sushi/sushi-article-009/|script-title=ja: 美味しく飲むためのコツ！開封後の日本酒の保存方法と賞味期限とは？|language=ja|publisher=World Hi-Vision Channel, Inc.|date=12 September 2019|archive-date=19 May 2022}}</ref><ref name="sakenoshoumi">{{cite web|url=https://sakenoshizuku.com/namazake-expiration-date|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220927211448/https://sakenoshizuku.com/namazake-expiration-date|script-title=ja:生酒の賞味期限は？冷蔵保存して半年以内に飲み切るのがベストなわけ|language=ja|publisher=Sake no shizuku|date=24 April 2020|archive-date=27 September 2022}}</ref> However, there are exceptions to these storage conditions, in which case the conditions are stated on the label. For example, sake under the brand name {{Nihongo||新政|Aramasa}} must be kept refrigerated at all times, even if it is ''junmai-shu'', which has been pasteurized.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://item.rakuten.co.jp/marutyu-sake/2018-3902/?scid=s_kwa_pla_unpaid_302857|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221230055743/https://item.rakuten.co.jp/marutyu-sake/2018-3902/?scid=s_kwa_pla_unpaid_302857|script-title=ja: (限定品) 新政(あらまさ) コスモス 2019 純米酒 一回火入れ 720ml 要冷蔵|language=ja|publisher=Rakuten|archive-date=30 December 2022}}</ref>

Once the sake is opened, it should be kept refrigerated, as the flavor deteriorates more quickly than before opening. Best before date after opening the bottle varies depending on the source. According to sake media outlet Sake no shizuku, which interviewed several major sake production companies, the responses from all companies were nearly identical. According to the responses, ''junmai'' type sake without added distilled alcohol has a best before date of 10 days after opening, while other types of sake with added distilled alcohol has a best before date of one month after opening.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://sakenoshizuku.com/sake-bestbefore-unopened|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220522145940/https://sakenoshizuku.com/sake-bestbefore-unopened|script-title=ja:酒造各社に聞いた日本酒の賞味期限は？未開封でも注意すべきポイント|language=ja|publisher=Sake no shizuku|date=24 April 2020|archive-date=22 May 2022}}</ref> According to the international sommelier of sake certified by SSI International, ''ginjō'' type sake, which is fermented at low temperature for a long time, has little flavor degradation for two to three days after opening and has a best before date of one week after opening. Other special designation sake and ''futsū-shu'' have little flavor degradation for 10 to 14 days after opening the bottle and have a best before date of one month after opening. Unpasteurized ''namazake'' deteriorates the fastest and should be drunk as soon as possible.<ref name="orishoumi"/>

These best before dates are shortened when stored at high temperatures or in bright places, especially under sunlight or fluorescent lights that emit ultraviolet rays.<ref name="orishoumi">
{{cite web|url=https://www.oricon.co.jp/special/56287/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221223052533/https://www.oricon.co.jp/special/56287/|script-title=ja:日本酒に賞味期限はある？未開封時の賞味期限と開封後の保存方法 きき酒師が教える日本酒|language=ja|publisher=Oricon news|date=15 December 2021|archive-date=23 December 2022}}</ref> On the other hand, the optimal temperature to minimize flavor degradation is minus 5 degrees Celsius (23 degrees Fahrenheit). It is also recommended that sake bottles be stored vertically. This is because if the bottle is placed horizontally, the sake is exposed to more air inside the bottle, which speeds up oxidation and may change the flavor when it comes in contact with the cap.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://sake-5.jp/sake-preservation-complete-version/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221127043718/https://sake-5.jp/sake-preservation-complete-version/|script-title=ja: 日本酒の正しい保存方法！期限から落とし穴まで総まとめ|language=ja|publisher=Nihonshu Lab|date=7 September 2022|archive-date=27 November 2022}}</ref>

If these types of sake, which were clear or white at first, turn yellow or brown, it is a sign that the flavor has deteriorated. The exception is aged ''[[#Different handling after fermentation|koshu]]'', which is amber in color from the time of shipment because it has been aged for several years to optimize its flavor.<ref name="sawashoumi"/>

==Ceremonial use==
{{Main|Omiki}}
Sake is often consumed as part of [[Shinto]] purification rituals. Sake served to gods as offerings before drinking are called {{nihongo||[[wikt:御神酒#Japanese|御神酒]]|o-miki}} or {{nihongo||[[wikt:神酒#Japanese|神酒]]|miki}}.

In a ceremony called ''[[kagami biraki]]'', wooden sake casks are opened with mallets during Shinto festivals, weddings, store openings, sports and election victories, and other celebrations. This sake, called {{tlit|ja|iwai-zake}} ('celebration sake'), is served freely to all to spread good fortune.

At the [[New Year]], many Japanese people drink a special sake called ''[[toso]]''. {{tlit|ja|Toso}} is a sort of {{tlit|ja|iwai-zake}} made by soaking {{tlit|ja|tososan}}, a ''[[kampo]]'' (traditional Japanese medicine), overnight in sake. Even children sip a portion. In some regions, the first sips of {{tlit|ja|toso}} are taken in order of age, from the youngest to the eldest.

On [[Children's Day (Japan)|Children's Day]], May 5, there is a custom of drinking {{Nihongo||菖蒲酒|shōbu sake}}, which is made by cutting iris roots and leaves into thin slices and soaking them in sake, a tradition inherited from {{tlit|ja|[[Tango no sekku]]}}. It is believed that iris has the power to ward off evil spirits and has medicinal properties.<ref name="gekkei">{{cite web|url=https://www.gekkeikan.co.jp/enjoy/culture/season/season05.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211106081130/https://www.gekkeikan.co.jp/enjoy/culture/season/season05.html|script-title=ja:菖蒲酒（しょうぶさけ）邪気を払い延命を記念する、端午の節句のしきたり|language=ja|publisher=[[Gekkeikan]]|archive-date=6 November 2021|access-date=6 February 2023}}</ref>

<gallery widths="200" heights="200">
File:Sake before the kagami biraki.jpg|A {{tlit|ja|Shochikubai Komodaru}} (straw mat cask) of sake before the [[kagami biraki]]
File:SakeContainers.jpg|Decorative sake containers in a [[Nakatsugawa]] shop
</gallery>

==Global growth==
Sake has seen a significant rise in global popularity. Sake exports have increased by 70% since 2021, reaching 41.1 billion yen ($270.4 million) in 2023. The United States is the largest market for exported sake, importing 6,500 kiloliters.<ref name="b228">{{cite web | title=Japanese sake exports up 70% as more foreign fans raise a glass | website=Nikkei Asia | date=2024-11-06 | url=https://asia.nikkei.com/Business/Food-Beverage/Japanese-sake-exports-up-70-as-more-foreign-fans-raise-a-glass | access-date=2024-11-06}}</ref>

Despite this growth, sake remains a niche product in the United States, accounting for only 0.2% of the total alcohol market as of 2020. This suggests there is potential for further expansion, mainly as American consumers develop a taste for Japanese culture and cuisine.<ref name="b228" />

==Events==
* October 1 is the official {{Nihongo|"Sake Day"|日本酒の日|Nihonshu no Hi}} of Japan.<ref>{{cite web |script-title=ja:10月1日の「日本酒の日」には確かな根拠あり |language=ja|url=http://www.sakejapan.com/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=27 |publisher=Sake Service Institute |access-date=December 16, 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130116022441/http://www.sakejapan.com/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=27 |archive-date=January 16, 2013 |df=mdy-all }}</ref> It is also called "[[World Sake Day]]". It was designated by the Japan Sake and Shochu Makers Association in 1978.

== Trivia ==
* Sake has its own [[Unicode]] [[emoji]]: 🍶 (U+1F376)

==See also==
{{Portal|Liquor|Japan}}
* [[Amylolytic process]]
* [[Awamori]], a distilled rice liquor produced in [[Okinawa Prefecture|Okinawa]]
* ''[[The Birth of Saké]]''
* ''[[Cheongju (drink)|Cheongju]]'', a Korean equivalent
* [[Chuak]], a [[Tripuri cuisine|Tripuri]] rice beer
* [[Glossary of sake terms]]
* [[Habushu]], awamori liquor containing a snake
* [[Handia (drink)|Handia]], an [[Indian cuisine|Indian]] equivalent
* [[Kohama style]], a method of sake brewing
* ''[[Mijiu]]'', a Chinese equivalent
* [[Mirin]], an essential condiment used in Japanese cuisine, which has been drunk as a sweet sake
* [[Soju]]
* [[Toso]], spiced medicinal sake
* [[World Sake Day]]

== Notes ==
{{notelist}}

==References==
=== Citations ===
{{Reflist}}

=== General and cited sources ===
* Bamforth CW. (2005). "Sake." ''Food, Fermentation and Micro-organisms''. Blackwell Science: Oxford, UK: 143–153.
* Kobayashi T, Abe K, Asai K, Gomi K, Uvvadi PR, Kato M, Kitamoto K, Takeuchi M, Machida M. (2007). "Genomics of ''Aspergillus oryzae''{{-"}}. ''Biosci Biotechnol. Biochem.'' '''71'''(3):646–670.
* Suzuki K, Asano S, Iijima K, Kitamoto K. (2008). "Sake and Beer Spoilage Lactic Acid Bacteria&nbsp;– A review." The Inst of Brew & Distilling; '''114'''(3):209–223.
* Uno T, Itoh A, Miyamoto T, Kubo M, Kanamaru K, Yamagata H, Yasufuku Y, Imaishi H. (2009). "Ferulic Acid Production in the Brewing of Rice Wine (Sake)." ''J Inst Brew''. '''115'''(2):116–121.

==Further reading==
* [[Rocky Aoki|Aoki]], Rocky, Nobu Mitsuhisa and Pierre A. Lehu (2003). [https://books.google.com/books?id=O5c-AAAACAAJ ''Sake: Water from Heaven'']. New York: Universe Publishing. {{ISBN|978-0-7893-0847-4}}
* Bunting, Chris (2011). ''Drinking Japan''. Singapore: Tuttle Publishing. {{ISBN|978-4-8053-1054-0}}.
* [[Fred Eckhardt|Eckhardt, Fred]] (1993). [https://books.google.com/books?id=SbjRAAAACAAJ ''Sake (U.S.A.): A Complete Guide to American Sake, Sake Breweries and Homebrewed Sake'']. Portland, Oregon: Fred Eckhardt Communications. {{ISBN|978-0-9606302-8-8}}.
* Gauntner, John (2002). [https://books.google.com/books?id=5y7X-mfWCEIC  ''The Sake Handbook'']. Tokyo: [[Tuttle Publishing]]. {{ISBN|978-0-8048-3425-4}}.
* [[Philip Harper (brewer)|Harper, Philip]]; Haruo Matsuzaki; Mizuho Kuwata; Chris Pearce (2006). [https://books.google.com/books?id=4IAlLDQWZGMC  ''The Book of Sake: A Connoisseurs Guide'']. Tokyo: Kodansha International. {{ISBN|978-4-7700-2998-0}}
* [[Engelbert Kaempfer|Kaempfer]], Engelbert (1906). [https://archive.org/details/historyjapantog04kaemgoog ''The History of Japan: Together with a Description of the Kingdom of Siam, 1690–92,'' Vol I.] [https://books.google.com/books?id=mOwaAAAAYAAJ Vol II.] [https://books.google.com/books?id=23wTAAAAYAAJ Vol III]. London: J. MacLehose and Sons. {{oclc|5174460}}.
* Morewood, Samuel (1824). [https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_os4GAAAAQAAJ ''An Essay on the Inventions and Customs of Both Ancients and Moderns in the Use of Inebriating Liquors: Interspersed with Interesting Anecdotes, Illustrative of the Manners and Habits of the Principal Nations of the World, with an Historical View of the Extent and Practice of Distillation'']. London: Longman, Hurst, Rees, Orme, Brown, and Green. {{oclc|213677222}}.
* [[Isaac Titsingh|Titsingh, Issac]] (1781). "Bereiding van de Sacki" ("Producing Sake"), [http://library.wur.nl/WebQuery/catalog/66098?wq_sfx=lang ''Verhandelingen van het Bataviaasch Genootschap'' (''Transactions of the Batavian Academy'')], Vol. III. {{oclc|9752305}}.

==External links==
{{Commons category}}
{{Wiktionary|sake}}
* [http://www.sakejapan.com/ Sake Service Institute]
* [http://www.sakeeducationcouncil.org/ Sake Education Council] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120905120454/http://www.sakeeducationcouncil.org/ |date=September 5, 2012 }}
* [http://sakesommelierassociation.com/ Sake Sommelier Association]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20170627154719/http://www.talkativeman.com/sake-and-japanese-culture/ An Indispensable Guide to Sake and Japanese Culture]
* [https://donaskitchen.com/what-does-sake-taste-like/ What Does Sake Taste Like?] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211107090535/https://donaskitchen.com/what-does-sake-taste-like/ |date=November 7, 2021 }}

{{Japanese food and drink}}
{{Alcoholic beverages}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Sake| ]]
[[Category:Alcoholic drinks]]
[[Category:Japanese alcoholic drinks]]
[[Category:Japanese condiments]]
[[Category:Rice wine]]