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{{short description|Classical averages studied in ancient Greece}}
{{More citations needed|date=July 2019}}
[[Image:MathematicalMeans.svg|thumb|right|A geometric construction of the quadratic mean and the Pythagorean means (of two numbers ''a'' and ''b''). Harmonic mean denoted by {{colorbox|purple}}{{nbsp}}''H'', geometric by {{colorbox|blue}}{{nbsp}}''G'', arithmetic by {{colorbox|red}}{{nbsp}}''A'' and quadratic mean (also known as [[root mean square]]) denoted by {{colorbox|green}}{{nbsp}}''Q''.]]
[[Image:Comparison_Pythagorean_means.svg|thumb|right|Comparison of the arithmetic, geometric and harmonic means of a pair of numbers. The vertical dashed lines are [[asymptote]]s for the harmonic means.]]
In mathematics, the three classical '''Pythagorean means''' are the [[arithmetic mean]] (AM), the [[geometric mean]] (GM), and the [[harmonic mean]] (HM). These [[mean]]s were studied with proportions by [[Pythagoreans]] and later generations of Greek mathematicians<ref>{{cite book|first=Thomas|last=Heath|title=History of Ancient Greek Mathematics}}</ref> because of their importance in geometry and music.

==Definition==
They are defined by:

<math display="block">\begin{align}
  \operatorname{AM} \left( x_1,\; \ldots,\; x_n \right) &= \frac{ x_1 + \;\cdots\; + x_n }{n} \\[9pt]
  \operatorname{GM} \left( x_1,\; \ldots,\; x_n \right) &= \sqrt[n]{\left\vert x_1 \times \,\cdots\, \times x_n \right\vert} \\[9pt]
  \operatorname{HM} \left( x_1,\; \ldots,\; x_n \right) &= \frac{n}{\displaystyle \frac{1}{x_1} + \;\cdots\; + \frac{1}{x_n}} 
\end{align}</math>

==Properties==
Each mean, <math display="inline">\operatorname{M}</math>, has the following properties:

; First-order [[homogeneous function|homogeneity]]: <math>\operatorname{M}(bx_1,\, \ldots,\, bx_n) = b \operatorname{M}(x_1,\, \ldots,\, x_n)</math>
; Invariance under exchange: <math>\operatorname{M}(\ldots,\, x_i,\, \ldots,\, x_j,\, \ldots) = \operatorname{M}(\ldots,\, x_j,\, \ldots,\, x_i,\, \ldots)</math>
: for any <math>i</math> and <math>j</math>.
; Monotonicity: <math> a \leq b \rightarrow \operatorname{M}(a,x_1,x_2,\ldots x_n) \leq \operatorname{M}(b,x_1,x_2,\ldots x_n)</math>
; [[Idempotent|Idempotence]]: <math> \forall x, \; M(x,x,\ldots x) = x </math>

Monotonicity and idempotence together imply that a mean of a set always lies between the extremes of the set:
<math display="block">\min(x_1,\, \ldots,\, x_n) \leq \operatorname{M}(x_1,\, \ldots,\, x_n) \leq \max(x_1,\, \ldots,\, x_n).</math>

The harmonic and arithmetic means are reciprocal duals of each other for positive arguments,
<math display="block">\operatorname{HM}\left(\frac{1}{x_1},\, \ldots,\, \frac{1}{x_n}\right) = \frac{1}{\operatorname{AM}\left(x_1,\, \ldots,\, x_n\right)},</math>

while the geometric mean is its own reciprocal dual:
<math display="block">\operatorname{GM}\left(\frac{1}{x_1},\, \ldots,\, \frac{1}{x_n}\right) = \frac{1}{\operatorname{GM}\left(x_1,\, \ldots,\, x_n\right)}.</math>

== Inequalities among means ==
{{QM_AM_GM_HM_inequality_visual_proof.svg}}
There is an ordering to these means (if all of the <math> x_i </math> are positive)
<math display="block">\min \leq \operatorname{HM} \leq \operatorname{GM} \leq \operatorname{AM} \leq \max</math>
with equality holding if and only if the <math>x_i</math> are all equal. 

This is a generalization of the [[inequality of arithmetic and geometric means]] and a special case of an inequality for [[generalized mean]]s.  The proof follows from the [[inequality of arithmetic and geometric means|arithmetic–geometric mean inequality]], <math>\operatorname{AM} \leq \max</math>, and reciprocal duality (<math>\min</math> and <math>\max</math> are also reciprocal dual to each other).

The study of the Pythagorean means is closely related to the study of [[majorization]] and [[Schur-convex function|Schur-convex functions]]. The harmonic and geometric means are concave symmetric functions of their arguments, and hence Schur-concave, while the arithmetic mean is a linear function of its arguments and hence is both concave and convex.

==History==

Almost everything that we know about the Pythagorean means came from arithmetic handbooks written in the first and second century. [[Nicomachus of Gerasa]] says that they were "acknowledged by all the ancients, Pythagoras, Plato and Aristotle."<ref>{{Cite book |last=Gerasa.) |first=Nicomachus (of |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wdhMAAAAMAAJ&dq=%22acknowledged+by+all+the+ancients%2C+Pythagoras%2C+Plato+and+Aristotle.%22&pg=PA266 |title=Introduction to Arithmetic |date=1926 |publisher=Macmillan |language=en}}</ref> Their earliest known use is a fragment of the Pythagorean philosopher [[Archytas of Tarentum]]:

{{Blockquote|text= There are three means in music: one is arithmetic, second is the geometric, third is sub-contrary, which they call harmonic. The mean is arithmetic when three terms are in proportion such that the excess by which the first exceeds the second is that by which the second exceeds the third. In this proportion it turns out that the interval of the greater terms is less, but that of the lesser terms greater. The mean is the geometric when they are such that as the first is to the second, so the second is to the third. Of these terms the greater and the lesser have the interval between them equal. Subcontrary, which we call harmonic, is the mean when they are such that, by whatever part of itself the first term exceeds the second, by that part of the third the middle term exceeds the third. It turns out that in this proportion the interval between the greater terms is greater and that between the lesser terms is less.|source=<ref>{{cite book
 |last=Huffman
 |first=Carl
 |date=2005
 |title=Archytas of Tarentum: Pythagorean, philosopher and mathematician king
 |publisher=Cambridge University Press
 |page= 163
 |isbn=1139444077
}}</ref>|author=Archytas of Tarentum}}

The name "harmonic mean", according to [[Iamblichus]],  was coined by Archytas and [[Hippasus]]. The Pythagorean means also appear in [[Plato]]'s [[Timaeus (dialogue)|Timaeus]]. Another evidence of their early use is a commentary by [[Pappus of Alexandria| Pappus]].

{{Blockquote|text= It was [...] [[Theaetetus (mathematician)| Theaetetus]] who distinguished the powers which are commensurable in length from those which are incommensurable, and who divided the more generally known irrational lines according to the different means, assigning the medial lines to geometry, the binomial to arithmetic, and the apotome to harmony, as is stated by [[Eudemus of Rhodes|Eudemus]], the Peripatetic.<ref>{{cite book
 |last=Huffman
 |first=Carl
 |date=2014
 |title=A History of Pythagoreanism
 |publisher=Cambridge University Press
 |page= 168
 |isbn=978-1139915984
}}</ref>}}

The term "mean" (Ancient Greek μεσότης, ''mesótēs'') appears in the [[Neopythagoreanism|Neopythagorean]] arithmetic handbooks in connection with the term "proportion" (Ancient Greek ἀναλογία, ''analogía'').{{cn|date=April 2021}}

==Smallest distinct positive integer means==
{| class="wikitable infobox" style="width:1px;"
! ''a'' !! ''b'' !! HM !! GM !! AM
|-
|  5 || 45 ||  9 || 15 || 25
|-
| 10 || 40 || 16 || 20 || 25
<!--
! ''a''
|style="text-align:right;"|5 || 10
|-
! ''b''
| 45 || 40
|-
! HM
|style="text-align:right;"|9 || 16
|-
! GM
| 15 || 20
|-
! AM
| 25 || 25
-->
|}
[[File:Pythagorean_means_nomograms.svg|thumb|250px|[[Nomogram]]s to graphically calculate {{nowrap|arithmetic (1),}} {{nowrap|geometric (2)}} and {{nowrap|harmonic (3)}} means, ''z'' of {{nowrap|1=''x''=40}} and {{nowrap|1=''y''=10}} (red), and {{nowrap|1=''x''=45}} and {{nowrap|1=''y''=5}} (blue)]]
Of all pairs of different natural numbers of the form (''a'', ''b'') such that ''a'' &lt; ''b'', the smallest (as defined by least value of ''a'' + ''b'') for which the arithmetic, geometric and harmonic means are all also natural numbers are (5, 45) and (10, 40).<ref>Virginia Tech Mathematics Department, [http://intranet.math.vt.edu/vtrmc/solutions/39th%20VTRMC,%202017,%20Solutions.pdf ''39th VTRMC, 2017, Solutions''], part 5</ref>

==See also==
* [[Arithmetic–geometric mean]]
* [[Average]]
* [[Golden ratio]]
* [[Kepler triangle]]

==Notes==
{{reflist|group=note}}
==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
*{{MathWorld|urlname=PythagoreanMeans|title=Pythagorean Means|author=Cantrell, David W.}}

[[Category:Means]]