View source for Noise pollution

{{Short description|Excessive displeasing noise}}
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[[File:Qantas b747 over houses arp.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|A [[Qantas]] [[Boeing 747-400]] passes close to houses shortly before landing at [[Heathrow Airport|London Heathrow Airport]].]]
[[File:Traffic jam Sao Paulo 09 2006 30a.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|[[Traffic]] is the main source of [[roadway noise|noise]] pollution in cities like [[São Paulo]], shown here.]]
{{Pollution sidebar|Noise}}

'''Noise pollution''', or '''sound pollution''', is the propagation of [[noise]] or [[sound]] with potential harmful effects on humans and animals. The source of outdoor noise worldwide is mainly caused by machines, transport and propagation systems.<ref name="Senate">Senate Public Works Committee. ''Noise Pollution and Abatement Act of 1972''. S. Rep. No. 1160, 92nd Congress. 2nd session</ref><ref>{{cite conference | vauthors = Hogan CM, Latshaw GL | title = The relationship between highway planning and urban noise. | conference = Proceedings of the ASCE Urban Transportation Division Environment Impact Specialty Conference | date = May 21–23, 1973 | location = Chicago, Illinois | publisher = American Society of Civil Engineers. Urban Transportation Division }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Marx|first=Leo|title=The Machine in the Garden|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=1964|location=New York}}</ref> Poor [[urban planning]] may give rise to noise disintegration or pollution, side-by-side industrial, and residential buildings can result in noise pollution in the residential areas. Some of the main sources of noise in residential areas include [[loud music]], [[transportation]] (traffic, rail, airplanes, etc.), lawn care maintenance, [[construction]], electrical generators, wind turbines, explosions, and people.

Documented problems associated with noise in [[urban environments]] go back as far as [[ancient Rome]].<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Goines L, Hagler L |date=March 2007 |title=Noise Pollution: A Modern Plague |url=http://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/554566_2 |url-status=live |journal=Southern Medical Journal |publisher=Lippincott Williams and Wilkins |volume=100 |issue=3 |pages=287–294 |doi=10.1097/SMJ.0b013e3180318be5 |pmid=17396733 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200128012742/https://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/554566_2 |archive-date=2020-01-28 |access-date=2015-12-21 |s2cid=23675085}}</ref> Research suggests that noise pollution in the United States is the highest in low-income and racial minority neighborhoods,<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Casey JA, Morello-Frosch R, Mennitt DJ, Fristrup K, Ogburn EL, James P | title = Race/Ethnicity, Socioeconomic Status, Residential Segregation, and Spatial Variation in Noise Exposure in the Contiguous United States | journal = Environmental Health Perspectives | volume = 125 | issue = 7 | pages = 077017 | date = July 2017 | pmid = 28749369 | pmc = 5744659 | doi = 10.1289/EHP898 | bibcode = 2017EnvHP.125g7017C }}</ref> and noise pollution associated with household electricity generators is an emerging [[environmental degradation]] in many developing nations.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Menkiti |first1=Nwasinachi U. |last2=Agunwamba |first2=Jonah C. |title=Assessment of noise pollution from electricity generators in a high-density residential area |journal=African Journal of Science, Technology, Innovation and Development |volume=7 |issue=4 |pages=306–312 |year=2015 |doi=10.1080/20421338.2015.1082370 |s2cid=110539619 }}</ref>

High noise levels can contribute to [[cardiovascular]] effects in humans and an increased incidence of [[coronary artery disease]].<ref name=":0">{{cite journal | vauthors = Münzel T, Schmidt FP, Steven S, Herzog J, Daiber A, Sørensen M | title = Environmental Noise and the Cardiovascular System | journal = Journal of the American College of Cardiology | volume = 71 | issue = 6 | pages = 688–697 | date = February 2018 | pmid = 29420965 | doi = 10.1016/j.jacc.2017.12.015 | doi-access = free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Hoffmann B, Moebus S, Stang A, Beck EM, Dragano N, Möhlenkamp S, Schmermund A, Memmesheimer M, Mann K, Erbel R, Jöckel KH | title = Residence close to high traffic and prevalence of coronary heart disease | journal = European Heart Journal | volume = 27 | issue = 22 | pages = 2696–2702 | date = November 2006 | pmid = 17003049 | doi = 10.1093/eurheartj/ehl278 | doi-access = free }}</ref> In animals, noise can increase the risk of death by altering predator or prey detection and avoidance, interfere with [[reproduction]] and navigation, and contribute to permanent hearing loss.<ref>{{Cite web|title = Results and Discussion – Effects – Noise Effect On Wildlife – Noise – Environment – FHWA|url = https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/environment/noise/noise_effect_on_wildlife/effects/wild04.cfm|website = [[Federal Highway Administration|Federal Highway Administration (FHWA)]]|access-date = 2015-12-21|archive-date = 2015-12-22|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20151222113658/https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/environment/noise/noise_effect_on_wildlife/effects/wild04.cfm|url-status = dead}}</ref>

==Noise assessment==

===Metrics of noise===
[[File:20230609 Average noise levels outside US homes.svg |thumb|More than a quarter of US residences have average outside noise levels exceeding the maximum nighttime outside noise level recommended by the World Health Organization.<ref name="NYTimes_20230609">{{cite news |last1=Baumgaertner |first1=Emily |last2=Kao |first2=Jason |last3=Lutz |first3=Eleanor |last4=Sedgwick |first4=Josephine |last5=Taylor |first5=Rumsey |last6=Throop |first6=Noah |last7=Williams |first7=Josh |date=June 9, 2023 |title=Noise Could Take Years Off Your Life Here's How. |url=https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2023/06/09/health/noise-exposure-health-impacts.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230609161926/https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2023/06/09/health/noise-exposure-health-impacts.html |archive-date=June 9, 2023 |work=The New York Times}}</ref>]]
Researchers measure [[noise]] in terms of [[pressure]], [[Intensity (physics)|intensity]], and [[frequency]]. [[Sound pressure level]] (SPL) represents the amount of pressure relative to atmospheric pressure during sound wave propagation that can vary with time; this is also known as the sum of the amplitudes of a wave.<ref name=":22">{{Cite web |title=What is Sound Pressure Level and how is it measured? |url=https://pulsarinstruments.com/en/post/sound-pressure-level-and-SPL-meters |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201117144052/https://pulsarinstruments.com/en/post/sound-pressure-level-and-SPL-meters |archive-date=2020-11-17 |access-date=2020-11-10 |website=Pulsar Instruments Plc |language=en}}</ref> [[Sound intensity]], measured in Watts per meters-squared, represents the flow of sound over a particular area. Although sound pressure and intensity differ, both can describe the level of loudness by comparing the current state to the threshold of hearing; this results in decibel units on the logarithmic scale.<ref name=":02">{{Cite report |url=https://apps.who.int/iris/handle/10665/66217 |title=Guidelines for community noise |last1=Berglund |first1=Birgitta |last2=Lindvall |first2=Thomas |date=1999 |publisher=World Health Organization (WHO) |last3=Schwela |first3=Dietrich H |last4=((World Health Organization. Occupational and Environmental Health Team)) |access-date=2020-11-11 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201030041933/https://apps.who.int/iris/handle/10665/66217 |archive-date=2020-10-30 |url-status=live |work=Institutional Repository for Information Sharing (IRIS) |hdl=10665/66217}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=January 28, 2019 |title=How is Sound Measured? |url=https://www.noisyplanet.nidcd.nih.gov/have-you-heard/how-is-sound-measured |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201117061235/https://www.noisyplanet.nidcd.nih.gov/have-you-heard/how-is-sound-measured |archive-date=2020-11-17 |access-date=2020-11-10 |website=It's a Noisy Planet. Protect Their Hearing. |language=en}}</ref> The logarithmic scale accommodates the vast range of sound heard by the human ear. 
[[File:ABC Weighting.png|thumb|upright=1.35|Depiction of frequency weighting]]
[[Frequency]], or pitch, is measured in Hertz (Hz) and reflects the number of sound waves propagated through the air per second.<ref name=":02" /><ref name=":12">{{Cite web |title=The Science of Sound |url=https://www.nasa.gov/specials/X59/science-of-sound.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201101082132/https://www.nasa.gov/specials/X59/science-of-sound.html |archive-date=2020-11-01 |access-date=2020-11-11 |website=X-59 QueSST |publisher=National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA)}}</ref> The range of frequencies heard by the human ear range from 20&nbsp;Hz to 20,000&nbsp;Hz; however, sensitivity to hearing higher frequencies decreases with age.<ref name=":02" /> Some organisms, such as elephants,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2008-06-03 |title=Can Animals Predict Disaster? {{!}} Listening to Infrasound {{!}} Nature {{!}} PBS |url=https://www.pbs.org/wnet/nature/can-animals-predict-disaster-listening-to-infrasound/133/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201111103549/https://www.pbs.org/wnet/nature/can-animals-predict-disaster-listening-to-infrasound/133/ |archive-date=2020-11-11 |access-date=2020-11-10 |website=Nature |language=en-US}}</ref> can register frequencies between 0 and 20&nbsp;Hz (infrasound), and others, such as bats, can recognize frequencies above 20,000&nbsp;Hz (ultrasound) to echolocate.<ref name=":12" /><ref>{{Cite web |title=How do bats echolocate and how are they adapted to this activity? |url=https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/how-do-bats-echolocate-an/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201109215355/https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/how-do-bats-echolocate-an/ |archive-date=2020-11-09 |access-date=2020-11-10 |website=Scientific American |language=en}}</ref>

Researchers use different weights to account for noise frequency with intensity, as humans do not perceive sound at the same loudness level.<ref name=":02" /> The most commonly used weighted levels are [[A-weighting]], C-weighting, and Z-weighting. A-weighting mirrors the range of hearing, with frequencies of 20&nbsp;Hz to 20,000&nbsp;Hz.<ref name=":02" /> This gives more weight to higher frequencies and less weight to lower frequencies.<ref name=":02" /><ref name=":6">{{Cite web |title=sound level frequency weightings - acoustic glossary |url=https://www.acoustic-glossary.co.uk/frequency-weighting.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201103193133/http://www.acoustic-glossary.co.uk/frequency-weighting.htm |archive-date=2020-11-03 |access-date=2020-11-29 |website=www.acoustic-glossary.co.uk}}</ref> C-weighting has been used to measure peak sound pressure or impulse noise, similar to loud short-lived noises from machinery in occupational settings.<ref name=":6" /><ref name=":7">{{Cite web |title=Understanding A, C and Z noise frequency weightings |url=https://pulsarinstruments.com/en/post/understanding-a-c-z-noise-frequency-weightings |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201125144619/https://pulsarinstruments.com/en/post/understanding-a-c-z-noise-frequency-weightings |archive-date=2020-11-25 |access-date=2020-11-29 |website=Pulsar Instruments Plc |language=en}}</ref> Z-weighting, also known as zero-weighting, represents noise levels without any frequency weights.<ref name=":6" /><ref name=":7" />

Understanding sound pressure levels is key to assessing [[Measurement|measurements]] of noise pollution. Several metrics describing noise exposure include:

* '''Energy average equivalent level of the A-weighted sound, LAeq:''' This measures the average sound energy over a given period for constant or continuous noise, such as road traffic.<ref name=":02" /> LAeq can be further broken up into different types of noise based on time of day; however, cutoffs for evening and nighttime hours may differ between countries, with the United States, Belgium, and New Zealand noting evening hours from 19:00–22:00 or 7:00&nbsp;p.m.–10:00&nbsp;p.m. and nighttime hours from 22:00–7:00 or 10:00&nbsp;p.m.–7:00&nbsp;a.m. and most European countries noting evening hours from 19:00–23:00 or 7:00&nbsp;p.m.–11:00&nbsp;p.m. and nighttime hours from 23:00–7:00 or 11:00&nbsp;p.m.–7:00&nbsp;a.m.).<ref name=":8">{{CELEX|32002L0049|text=Directive 2002/49/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 25 June 2002 relating to the assessment and management of environmental noise - Declaration by the Commission in the Conciliation Committee on the Directive relating to the assessment and management of environmental noise}}</ref> LAeq terms include:
** '''[[Day-night average sound level|Day-night average level, DNL or LDN]]:''' This measurement assesses the cumulative exposure to sound for a 24-hour period (L<sub>eq</sub> over 24&nbsp;hrs) of the year, with a 10&nbsp;dB(A) penalty or weight added to nighttime noise measurements given the increased sensitivity to noise at night. This is calculated from the following equation (United States, Belgium, New Zealand):<ref name=":9">{{Cite web |date=Jan 2009 |others=Environmental Research and Consultancy Department, Civil Aviation Authority |title=ERCD Report 0904: Metrics for Aircraft Noise |url=https://publicapps.caa.co.uk/docs/33/ERCD0904.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210812003152/https://publicapps.caa.co.uk/docs/33/ERCD0904.pdf |archive-date=2021-08-12 |access-date=2020-11-29 |website=UK Civil Aviation Authority |vauthors=Jones K, Cadoux R}}</ref> <math>L_{dn}=10\cdot\log_{10}\frac{1}{24}\left(15\cdot10^\frac{L_{day}}{10}+9\cdot10^\frac{L_{night}+10}{10}\right) </math>
**'''[[Day–evening–night noise level|Day-evening-night average level, DENL or Lden:]]''' This measurement, commonly used in European countries, assesses the 24-hour average in a year (similar to DNL); however, this measurement separates evening (4 hours, 19:00–23:00 or 7:00pm–11:00pm) from night hours (8 hours, 23:00–7:00 or 11:00&nbsp;p.m.–7:00&nbsp;a.m.) and adds a 5&nbsp;dB penalty to evening and 10&nbsp;dB penalty to nighttime hours. This is calculated from the following equation (most of Europe):<ref name=":02" /><ref name=":8" /> <math>L_{den}=10\cdot\log_{10}\frac{1}{24}\left (12\cdot10^\frac{L_{day}}{10}+4\cdot10^\frac{L_{evening}+5}{10}+8\cdot10^\frac{L_{night}+10}{10}\right) </math>
**'''Daytime level, LAeqD, or Lday:''' This measurement assesses daytime noise, usually from 7:00–19:00 (7&nbsp;a.m.–7&nbsp;p.m.), yet may vary by country.<ref name=":9" />
**'''Nighttime level, LAeqN, or Lnight:''' This measurement assesses nighttime noise, depending on country cutoff hours discussed above.
*'''Maximum level, LAmax:''' This measurement represents the maximal noise level when examining point sources or single events of noise; however, this value does not factor in duration of the event.<ref name=":02" /><ref>{{Cite web |title=Fundamentals of Noise and Sound |url=https://www.faa.gov/regulations_policies/policy_guidance/noise/basics/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201203033532/https://www.faa.gov/regulations_policies/policy_guidance/noise/basics/ |archive-date=2020-12-03 |access-date=2020-11-29 |website=www.faa.gov |language=en-us}}</ref>
* '''Sound exposure level of A-weighted sound, SEL:''' This measurement represents the total energy for a particular event. SEL is used to describe discrete events in terms of A-weighted sound. The difference between SEL and LAmax is that SEL is derived using multiple time points of a particular event in calculating sound levels rather than the peak value.<ref name=":02" />
*'''Percentile-derived measurements (L10, L50, L90, etc.):''' Noise may be described in terms of its statistical distribution over a set time, in which investigators may obtain values, or cut-points, at any percentile level. The L90 is the sound level that exceeds 90% of the time period; this is commonly referred to as background noise.<ref name=":02" />
Researchers with the US National Park Service found that human activity doubles the background-noise levels in 63 percent of protected spaces like national parks, and increases them tenfold in 21 percent. In the latter places, "if you could have heard something 100 feet away, now you can only hear it 10 feet away".<ref>{{Cite web |last=Yong |first=Ed |date=2022-06-13 |title=How Animals Perceive the World |url=https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2022/07/light-noise-pollution-animal-sensory-impact/638446/ |access-date=2022-06-14 |website=The Atlantic |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Buxton |first1=Rachel T |last2=McKenna |first2=Megan F |last3=Mennitt |first3=Daniel |last4=Brown |first4=Emma |last5=Fristrup |first5=Kurt |last6=Crooks |first6=Kevin R |last7=Angeloni |first7=Lisa M |last8=Wittemyer |first8=George |date=December 2019 |title=Anthropogenic noise in US national parks – sources and spatial extent |journal=Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment |language=en |volume=17 |issue=10 |pages=559–564 |bibcode=2019FrEE...17..559B |doi=10.1002/fee.2112 |issn=1540-9295 |s2cid=208594340 |doi-access=free}}</ref>

===Instrumentation===
[[File:Sound level meter with sound waves.png|alt=|thumb|upright|A [[sound level meter]] is one of the main tools for measuring sounds in the environment and the workplace.]]

====Sound level meters====
Sound can be measured in the air using a [[sound level meter]], a device consisting of a microphone, an [[amplifier]], and a time meter.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Webster |first1=Roger C. |title=Plant Engineer's Handbook |year=2001 |isbn=978-0-7506-7328-0 |pages=707–719 |chapter=Noise and Vibration |doi=10.1016/b978-075067328-0/50044-6}}</ref> Sound level meters can measure noise at different frequencies (usually A- and C-weighted levels).<ref name=":02" /> There are two settings for response time constants, fast (time constant = 0.125 seconds, similar to human hearing) or slow (1 second, used for calculating averages over widely varying sound levels).<ref name=":02" /> Sound level meters meet the required standards set by the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC)<ref>{{Cite web |title=IEC 61672-1:2013 {{!}} IEC Webstore |url=https://webstore.iec.ch/publication/5708 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210126101227/https://webstore.iec.ch/publication/5708 |archive-date=2021-01-26 |access-date=2020-11-29 |website=webstore.iec.ch}}</ref> and in the United States, the American National Standards Institute as type 0, 1, or 2 instruments.<ref name=":13">{{Cite web |date=1983 |title=ANSI S1.4-1983, Specification for Sound Level Meters |url=https://law.resource.org/pub/us/cfr/ibr/002/ansi.s1.4.1983.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210211011219/https://law.resource.org/pub/us/cfr/ibr/002/ansi.s1.4.1983.pdf |archive-date=2021-02-11 |access-date=2020-11-28 |website=American National Standards Institute}}</ref>

Type 0 devices are not required to meet the same criteria expected of types 1 and 2 since scientists use these as laboratory reference standards.<ref name=":13" /> Type 1 (precision) instruments are to study the precision of capturing sound measurements, while type 2 instruments are for general field use.<ref name=":13" /> Type 1 devices acceptable by the standards have a margin of error of ±1.5&nbsp;dB, while type 2 instruments meet a margin of error of ±2.3&nbsp;dB.<ref name=":13" />

====Dosimeters====
Sound can also be measured using a [[noise dosimeter]], a device similar to a sound level meter. Individuals have used dosimeters to measure personal exposure levels in occupational settings given their smaller, more portable size. Unlike many sound level meters, a dosimeter microphone attaches to the worker and monitors levels throughout a work shift.<ref name=":14">{{cite report |url=https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/docs/98-126/pdfs/98-126.pdf?id=10.26616/NIOSHPUB98126 |title=Criteria for a recommended standard... occupational noise exposure, revised criteria 1998 |date=June 1998 |publisher=U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health |doi=10.26616/NIOSHPUB98126 |id=DHHS (NIOSH) Publication No. 98–126 |access-date=2022-12-06}}</ref> Additionally, dosimeters can calculate the percent dose or time-weighted average (TWA).<ref name=":14" />

====Smartphone applications====
[[File:NoiseLevel LeafBlower.jpg|thumb|upright|alt=Noise level from a leaf blower using the NIOSH Sound Level Meter app showing 95.3 decibels.|Measuring the noise level from a leaf blower using the NIOSH Sound Level Meter app]]

In recent years, [[Scientist|scientists]] and [[Audio engineer|audio engineers]] have been developing smartphone apps to conduct sound measurements, similar to the standalone sound level meters and dosimeters. In 2014, the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) within the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) published a study examining the efficacy of 192 sound measurement apps on Apple and Android smartphones.<ref name=":23">{{Cite web |date=2020-06-22 |title=NIOSH Sound Level Meter App {{!}} NIOSH {{!}} CDC |url=https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/topics/noise/app.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210901130051/https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/topics/noise/app.html |archive-date=2021-09-01 |access-date=2020-11-27 |website=www.cdc.gov |language=en-us}}</ref><ref name=":10">{{cite journal |vauthors=Kardous CA, Shaw PB |date=April 2014 |title=Evaluation of smartphone sound measurement applications |journal=The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America |volume=135 |issue=4 |pages=EL186–EL192 |bibcode=2014ASAJ..135L.186K |doi=10.1121/1.4865269 |pmc=4659422 |pmid=25236152}}</ref>

The authors found that only 10 apps, all of which were on the [[App Store (iOS/iPadOS)|App Store]], met all acceptability criteria. Of these 10 apps, only 4 apps met accuracy criteria within 2&nbsp;dB(A) from the reference standard.<ref name=":23" /><ref name=":10" /> As a result of this study, they created the NIOSH Sound Level Meter App to increase accessibility and decrease costs of monitoring noise using crowdsourcing data with a tested and highly accurate application.<ref name=":23" /><ref name=":10" /> The app is compliant with ANSI S1.4 and IEC 61672 requirements.<ref>{{Cite journal |vauthors=Celestina M, Hrovat J, Kardous CA |date=2018-10-01 |title=Smartphone-based sound level measurement apps: Evaluation of compliance with international sound level meter standards |journal=Applied Acoustics |language=en |volume=139 |pages=119–128 |doi=10.1016/j.apacoust.2018.04.011 |s2cid=116822722}}</ref>

The app calculates the following measures: total run time, instantaneous sound level, A-weighted equivalent sound level (LAeq), maximum level (LAmax), C-weighted peak sound level, time-weighted average (TWA), dose, and projected dose.<ref name=":23" /> Dose and projected dose are based on sound level and duration of noise exposure in relation to the NIOSH recommended exposure limit of 85&nbsp;dB(A) for an eight-hour work shift.

Using the phone's internal microphone (or an attached external microphone), the NIOSH Sound Level Meter measures instantaneous sound levels in real time and converts sound into electrical energy to calculate measurements in A-, C-, or Z-weighted decibels. App users are able to generate, save, and e-mail measurement reports. The NIOSH Sound Level Meter is currently only available on Apple iOS devices.

==Impacts==
===Human health===
{{Main|Health effects from noise}}

Noise pollution affects both [[health]] and [[behavior]]. Unwanted sound (noise) can damage physiological health and [[mental health]]. Noise pollution is associated with several health conditions, including cardiovascular disorders, [[hypertension]], high stress levels, [[tinnitus]], hearing loss, sleep disturbances, and other harmful effects.<ref name=":0" /><ref name="Rosen">S. Rosen and P. Olin, ''Hearing Loss and Coronary Heart Disease'', Archives of Otolaryngology, 82:236 (1965)</ref><ref>{{cite web
| title = Noise Pollution
| url = http://www.euro.who.int/Noise
| publisher = [[World Health Organization]]
| date = 2018-12-08
| access-date = 2008-04-20
| archive-date = 2010-01-08
| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20100108141209/http://www.euro.who.int/Noise
| url-status = live
}}</ref><ref>{{cite news
| title=Road noise link to blood pressure
| url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/health/8247217.stm
| work=[[BBC News]]
| date=2009-09-10
| access-date=2009-09-10
| archive-date=2021-09-29
| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210929113215/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/health/8247217.stm
| url-status=live
}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Kerns E, Masterson EA, Themann CL, Calvert GM | title = Cardiovascular conditions, hearing difficulty, and occupational noise exposure within US industries and occupations | journal = American Journal of Industrial Medicine | volume = 61 | issue = 6 | pages = 477–491 | date = June 2018 | pmid = 29537072 | pmc = 6897488 | doi = 10.1002/ajim.22833 }}</ref> According to a research article, the exposure of sound level more than 81 dB inreased the chances of prehypertension and hypertension in local population of Pakistan. <ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Kashif Nawaz |first1=Syed |last2=Hasnain |first2=Shahida |date=2010-08-20 |title=Noise Induced Hypertension and Prehypertension in Pakistan |url=http://www.bjbms.org/ojs/index.php/bjbms/article/view/2694 |journal=Bosnian Journal of Basic Medical Sciences |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=239–244 |doi=10.17305/bjbms.2010.2694 |issn=1840-4812 |pmc=5504502 |pmid=20846132}}</ref>  According to a 2019 review of the existing literature, noise pollution was associated with faster cognitive decline.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Paul KC, Haan M, Mayeda ER, Ritz BR | title = Ambient Air Pollution, Noise, and Late-Life Cognitive Decline and Dementia Risk | journal = Annual Review of Public Health | volume = 40 | issue = 1 | pages = 203–220 | date = April 2019 | pmid = 30935305 | pmc = 6544148 | doi = 10.1146/annurev-publhealth-040218-044058 | doi-access = free }}</ref>

Across Europe, according to the [[European Environment Agency]], it estimated 113 million people are affected by road traffic noise levels above 55&nbsp;decibels, the threshold at which noise becomes harmful to human health by the WHO's definition.<ref>{{cite news |last=Harvey |first=Fiona |url=https://www.theguardian.com/society/2020/mar/05/one-in-five-europeans-exposed-to-harmful-noise-pollution-study |title=One in five Europeans exposed to harmful noise pollution – study |date=2020-03-05 |work=The Guardian |access-date=2020-03-05 |archive-date=2020-03-05 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200305064317/https://www.theguardian.com/society/2020/mar/05/one-in-five-europeans-exposed-to-harmful-noise-pollution-study |url-status=live }}</ref>

Sound becomes unwanted when it either interferes with normal activities such as sleep or conversation, or disrupts or diminishes one's quality of life.<ref>{{cite web|last=Jefferson|first=Catrice|title=Noise Pollution|url=http://www.epa.gov/air/noise.html|publisher=U.S. Environmental Protection Agency|access-date=2013-09-24|archive-date=2016-06-22|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160622083923/https://www3.epa.gov/air/noise.html|url-status=live}}</ref> [[Noise-induced hearing loss]] can be caused by prolonged exposure to noise levels above 85 A-weighted [[decibel]]s.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.nidcd.nih.gov/health/noise-induced-hearing-loss|title=Noise-Induced Hearing Loss|last=National Institutes of Health|first=NIDCD|date=Feb 7, 2017|access-date=June 29, 2018|archive-date=April 14, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200414132329/https://www.nidcd.nih.gov/health/noise-induced-hearing-loss|url-status=live}}</ref> A comparison of [[Maaban]] tribesmen, who were insignificantly exposed to transportation or industrial noise, to a typical U.S. population showed that chronic exposure to moderately high levels of environmental noise contributes to hearing loss.<ref name="Rosen" />

Noise exposure in the workplace can also contribute to [[noise-induced hearing loss]] and other health issues. [[Occupational hearing loss]] is one of the most common work-related illnesses in the U.S. and worldwide.<ref name=":11">{{Cite web |url= https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/topics/noise |title= Noise and Hearing Loss Prevention |last= National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health |date= Feb 6, 2018 |access-date= June 29, 2018 |archive-date= June 29, 2018 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20180629235639/https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/topics/noise/ |url-status= live }}</ref>

It is less clear how humans adapt to noise subjectively. Tolerance for noise is frequently independent of decibel levels. Murray Schafer's soundscape research was groundbreaking in this regard. In his work, he makes compelling arguments about how humans relate to noise on a subjective level, and how such subjectivity is conditioned by culture.<ref name="Schafer 1977">{{cite book |last=Schafer |first=Murray |title=The Soundscape |date=1977 |publisher=Destiny Books}}</ref> Schafer notes that sound is an expression of power in material culture. As such, fast cars or Harley Davidson motorcycles with aftermarket pipes tend to have louder engines not only for safety reasons, but for expressions of power by dominating the soundscape with a particular sound.<ref name="Schafer 1977"/>

Other key research in this area can be seen in Fong's comparative analysis of soundscape differences between Bangkok, Thailand, and Los Angeles, California, US. Based on Schafer's research, Fong's study showed how soundscapes differ based on the level of urban development in the area. He found that cities in the periphery have different soundscapes than inner city areas. Fong's findings tie not only soundscape appreciation to subjective views of sound, but also demonstrates how different sounds of the soundscape are indicative of class differences in urban environments.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Fong |first1=Jack |title=Making Operative Concepts from Murray Schafer's Soundscapes Typology: A Qualitative and Comparative Analysis of Noise Pollution in Bangkok, Thailand and Los Angeles, California |journal=Urban Studies |year=2014 |volume=53 |issue=1 |pages=173–192 |doi=10.1177/0042098014562333 |s2cid=30362727 }}</ref>

Noise pollution can have negative affects on adults and children on the [[Autism spectrum|autistic spectrum]].<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|url=https://www.autismspeaks.org/expert-opinion/autism-anxiety-parents-seek-help-extreme-reaction-loud-noise-0|title=Autism & Anxiety: Parents seek help for extreme reaction to loud noise|website=Autism Speaks|access-date=2018-11-05|archive-date=2019-05-13|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190513170849/https://www.autismspeaks.org/expert-opinion/autism-anxiety-parents-seek-help-extreme-reaction-loud-noise-0|url-status=live}}</ref> Those with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) can have hyperacusis, which is an abnormal sensitivity to sound.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.asha.org/practice-portal/clinical-topics/tinnitus-and-hyperacusis/|title=Tinnitus and Hyperacusis: Overview|website=American Speech-Language-Hearing Association|access-date=2019-04-12|archive-date=2019-04-12|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190412163949/https://www.asha.org/practice-portal/clinical-topics/tinnitus-and-hyperacusis/|url-status=live}}</ref> People with ASD who experience hyperacusis may have unpleasant emotions, such as fear and anxiety, and uncomfortable physical sensations in noisy environments with loud sounds.<ref>{{cite journal| vauthors = Stiegler LN, Davis R |year=2010|title=Understanding Sound Sensitivity in Individuals with Autism Spectrum Disorders |journal=Focus on Autism and Other Developmental Disabilities |volume=25 |number=2 |pages=67–75 |doi=10.1177/1088357610364530|s2cid=146251446}}</ref> This can cause individuals with ASD to avoid environments with noise pollution, which in turn can result in isolation and negatively affect their quality of life. Sudden explosive noises typical of high-performance car exhausts and car alarms are types of noise pollution that can affect people with ASD.<ref name=":1" />

While the elderly may have cardiac problems due to noise, according to the World Health Organization, children are especially vulnerable to noise, and the effects that noise has on children may be permanent.<ref>{{cite web|title=Children and Noise|url=https://www.who.int/ceh/capacity/noise.pdf|publisher=World Health Organization|access-date=2020-10-05|archive-date=2020-09-19|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200919130600/https://www.who.int/ceh/capacity/noise.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> Noise poses a serious threat to a child's physical and psychological health, and may negatively interfere with a child's learning and behavior.<ref>{{cite web|title=Noise and Its Effects on Children|url=https://www.epa.gov/sites/production/files/2015-07/documents/ochp_noise_fs_rev1.pdf|publisher=U.S. Environmental Protection Agency|access-date=2018-03-21|archive-date=2017-08-29|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170829021829/https://www.epa.gov/sites/production/files/2015-07/documents/ochp_noise_fs_rev1.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> Exposure to persistent noise pollution shows how important maintaining [[environmental health]] is in keeping [[child]]ren and [[Old age|elderly]] healthy.<ref>"The Effects of Noise on Health". ''hms.harvard.edu''. Retrieved 2023-03-09.</ref>

===Wildlife===
Noise generated by traffic, ships, vehicles, and aircraft can affect the survivability of wildlife species and can reach undisturbed habitats.<ref name="Sordello-2019">{{Cite journal |vauthors=Sordello R, De Lachapelle FF, Livoreil B, Vanpeene S |date=2019 |title=Evidence of the environmental impact of noise pollution on biodiversity: a systematic map protocol |journal=Environmental Evidence |volume=8 |issue=1 |pages=8 |doi=10.1186/s13750-019-0146-6 |bibcode=2019EnvEv...8....8S |doi-access=free}}</ref> Although sounds are commonly present in the environment, anthropogenic noises are distinguishable due to differences in frequency and amplitude.<ref name="Francis-2009">{{cite journal |vauthors=Francis CD, Ortega CP, Cruz A |date=August 2009 |title=Noise pollution changes avian communities and species interactions |journal=Current Biology |volume=19 |issue=16 |pages=1415–9 |doi=10.1016/j.cub.2009.06.052 |pmid=19631542 |s2cid=15985432 |doi-access=free|bibcode=2009CBio...19.1415F }}</ref> Many animals use sounds to communicate with others of their species, whether that is for reproduction purposes, navigation, or to notify others of prey or predators. However, anthropogenic noises inhibit species from detecting these sounds, affecting overall communication within the population.<ref name="Francis-2009" /> Species such as birds, amphibians, reptiles, fishes, mammals, and invertebrates are examples of biological groups that are impacted by noise pollution.<ref name="Sordello-2019" /><ref name="Kunc-2019">{{cite journal |vauthors=Kunc HP, Schmidt R |date=November 2019 |title=The effects of anthropogenic noise on animals: a meta-analysis |journal=Biology Letters |volume=15 |issue=11 |pages=20190649 |doi=10.1098/rsbl.2019.0649 |pmc=6892517 |pmid=31744413}}</ref> If animals cannot communicate with one another, this would result in reproduction to decline (not able to find mates), and higher mortality (lack of communication for predator detection).<ref name="Sordello-2019" /> The study of these relationships between acoustic organisms, the acoustic environment, and resulting impacts is known as [[soundscape ecology]] or [[acoustic ecology]]. 

[[European robin]]s living in urban environments are more likely to sing at night in places with high levels of noise pollution during the day, suggesting that they sing at night because it is quieter, and their message can propagate through the environment more clearly.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Fuller RA, Warren PH, Gaston KJ | title = Daytime noise predicts nocturnal singing in urban robins | journal = Biology Letters | volume = 3 | issue = 4 | pages = 368–370 | date = August 2007 | pmid = 17456449 | pmc = 2390663 | doi = 10.1098/rsbl.2007.0134 }}</ref> The same study showed that daytime noise was a stronger predictor of nocturnal singing than night-time [[light pollution]], to which the phenomenon often is attributed. Anthropogenic noise reduced the species richness of birds found in Neotropical urban parks.<ref>{{cite journal| vauthors=Perillo A, Mazzoni LG, Passos LF, Goulart VD, Duca C, Young RJ| year=2017| title=Anthropogenic noise reduces bird species richness and diversity in urban parks| journal=Ibis| volume=159| pages=638–646| doi=10.1111/ibi.12481| issue=3| s2cid=89816734| url=http://researchonline.ljmu.ac.uk/10497/3/Anthropogenic%20noise%20reduces%20bird%20species%20richness%20and%20diversity%20in%20urban%20parks.pdf| access-date=2019-09-24| archive-date=2019-04-28| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190428182041/http://researchonline.ljmu.ac.uk/10497/3/Anthropogenic%20noise%20reduces%20bird%20species%20richness%20and%20diversity%20in%20urban%20parks.pdf| url-status=live}}</ref>

[[Zebra finch]]es become less faithful to their partners when exposed to traffic noise. This could alter a population's evolutionary trajectory by selecting traits, sapping resources normally devoted to other activities and thus leading to profound genetic and evolutionary consequences.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Milius |first1=Susan |title=High volume, low fidelity: Birds are less faithful as sounds blare |journal=Science News |date=30 September 2009 |volume=172 |issue=8 |pages=116 |doi=10.1002/scin.2007.5591720804 }}</ref>

====Why invertebrates are affected====
Several reasons have been identified relating to hypersensitivity in invertebrates when exposed to [[Soundscape ecology#Anthropophony and insects|anthropogenic noise]]. Invertebrates have evolved to pick up sound, and a large portion of their physiology is adapted for the purpose of detecting environmental vibrations.<ref name="Morley_2014">{{cite journal | vauthors = Morley EL, Jones G, Radford AN | title = The importance of invertebrates when considering the impacts of anthropogenic noise | journal = Proceedings. Biological Sciences | volume = 281 | issue = 1776 | pages = 20132683 | date = February 2014 | pmid = 24335986 | pmc = 3871318 | doi = 10.1098/rspb.2013.2683 }}</ref> Antennae or hairs on the organism pick up particle motion.<ref name="Nedelec_2016">{{cite journal | vauthors = Nedelec SL, Campbell J, Radford AN, Simpson SD, Merchant ND | title = Particle motion: the missing link in underwater acoustic ecology. | journal = Methods in Ecology and Evolution | date = July 2016 | volume = 7 | issue = 7 | pages = 836–42 | doi = 10.1111/2041-210x.12544 | bibcode = 2016MEcEv...7..836N | doi-access = free | hdl = 10871/30438 | hdl-access = free }}</ref> Anthropogenic noise created in the marine environment, such as pile driving and shipping, are picked up through particle motion; these activities exemplify near-field stimuli.<ref name="Nedelec_2016" />

The ability to detect vibration through mechanosensory structures is most important in invertebrates and fish. Mammals, also, depend on pressure detector ears to perceive the noise around them.<ref name="Nedelec_2016" /> Therefore, it is suggested that marine invertebrates are likely perceiving the effects of noise differently than marine mammals. It is reported that invertebrates can detect a large range of sounds, but noise sensitivity varies substantially between each species. Generally, however, invertebrates depend on frequencies under 10&nbsp;kHz. This is the frequency at which a great deal of ocean noise occurs.<ref>{{cite web | vauthors = Hallander J, Lee D | year = 2015 | title = Shipping and Underwater Radiated Noise. | work = SSPA Highlights | publisher = SSPA Sweden AB | url = https://www.sspa.se/shipping-and-underwater-radiated-noise | access-date = 2020-05-13 | archive-date = 2020-08-03 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20200803090545/https://www.sspa.se/shipping-and-underwater-radiated-noise | url-status = live }}</ref>

Therefore, not only does anthropogenic noise often mask invertebrate communication, but it also negatively impacts other biological system functions through noise-induced stress.<ref name="Morley_2014" />
Another one of the leading causes of noise effects in invertebrates is because sound is used in multiple behavioral contexts by many groups. This includes regularly sound produced or perceived in the context of aggression or predator avoidance. Invertebrates also utilize sound to attract or locate mates, and often employ sound in the courtship process.<ref name="Morley_2014" />

====Stress recorded in physiological and behavioral responses====
[[File:20220623 Noise pollution. Tomaszów Mazowiecki (60,000 population town), residential area.oga|thumb|An exaggerated sound from machines used for the care of greenery. A four-story apartments complex area in [[Tomaszów Mazowiecki]], Poland ]]
Many of the studies that were conducted on invertebrate exposure to noise found that a physiological or behavioral response was triggered. Most of the time, this related to stress, and provided concrete evidence that marine invertebrates detect and respond to noise. Some of the most informative studies in this category focus on [[Hermit crab|hermit crabs]]. In one study, it was found that the behavior of the hermit crab ''[[Pagurus bernhardus]]'', when attempting to choose a shell, was modified when subjected to noise.<ref name="Walsh_2017">{{cite journal | vauthors = Walsh EP, Arnott G, Kunc HP | title = Noise affects resource assessment in an invertebrate | journal = Biology Letters | volume = 13 | issue = 4 | page = 20170098 | date = April 2017 | pmid = 28404823 | pmc = 5414699 | doi = 10.1098/rsbl.2017.0098 }}</ref>

Proper selection of hermit crab shells strongly contributes to their ability to survive. Shells offer protection against predators, high salinity and desiccation.<ref name="Walsh_2017" /> However, researchers determined that approach to shell, investigation of shell, and habitation of shell, occurred over a shorter time duration with anthropogenic noise as a factor. This indicated that assessment and decision-making processes of the hermit crab were both altered, even though hermit crabs are not known to evaluate shells using any auditory or mechanoreception mechanisms.<ref name="Walsh_2017" />

In another study that focused on ''Pagurus bernhardus'' and the [[blue mussel]] (''Mytilus edulis''), physical behaviors exhibited a stress response to noise. When the hermit crab and mussel were exposed to different types of noise, significant variation in the valve gape occurred in the blue mussel.<ref name="Breithaupt_2020">{{cite conference | vauthors = Breithaupt T, Elliott M, Roberts L, Simpson S, Bruintjes R, Harding H, Radford A, Voellmy IK, Harding HR, Voellmy I, Simpson SD | title = Exposure of benthic invertebrates to sediment vibration: From laboratory experiments to outdoor simulated pile-driving. | series = Proceedings of Meetings on Acoustics | conference = Proceedings of Meetings on Acoustics | date = April 2020 | volume = 27 | issue = 1 | page = 010029 | publisher = Acoustical Society of America | doi = 10.1121/2.0000324 | doi-access = free | hdl = 10871/30440 | hdl-access = free }}</ref> The hermit crab responded to the noise by lifting the shell off of the ground multiple times, then vacating the shell to examine it before returning inside.<ref name="Breithaupt_2020" /> The results from the hermit crab trials were ambiguous with respect to causation; more studies must be conducted in order to determine whether the behavior of the hermit crab can be attributed to the noise produced.

Another study that demonstrates a stress response in invertebrates was conducted on the [[longfin inshore squid]] (''Doryteuthis pealeii''). The squid was exposed to sounds of construction known as pile driving, which impacts the sea bed directly and produces intense substrate-borne and water-borne vibrations.<ref name="Roberts_2017" /> The squid reacted by jetting, inking, pattern change and other startle responses.<ref name="Jones_2020">{{cite journal | vauthors = Jones IT, Stanley JA, Mooney TA | title = Impulsive pile driving noise elicits alarm responses in squid (Doryteuthis pealeii) | journal = Marine Pollution Bulletin | volume = 150 | pages = 110792 | date = January 2020 | pmid = 31910530 | doi = 10.1016/j.marpolbul.2019.110792 | bibcode = 2020MarPB.15010792J | s2cid = 210086977 | doi-access =  }}</ref> Since the responses recorded are similar to those identified when faced with a predator, it is implied that the squid initially viewed the sounds as a threat. However, it was also noted that the alarm responses decreased over a period of time, signifying that the squid had likely acclimated to the noise.<ref name="Jones_2020" /> Regardless, it is apparent that stress occurred in the squid, and although further investigation has not been pursued, researchers suspect that other implications exist that may alter the squid's survival habits.<ref name="Jones_2020" />

An additional study examined the impact noise exposure had on the [[Indo-Pacific humpback dolphin]] (''Sousa chinensis''). The dolphins were exposed to elevated noise levels due to construction in the Pearl River Estuary in China, specifically caused by the world's largest vibration hammer—the OCTA-KONG.<ref name=":17">{{cite journal | vauthors = Wang Z, Wu Y, Duan G, Cao H, Liu J, Wang K, Wang D | title = Assessing the underwater acoustics of the world's largest vibration hammer (OCTA-KONG) and its potential effects on the Indo-Pacific humpbacked dolphin (Sousa chinensis) | journal = PLOS ONE | volume = 9 | issue = 10 | pages = e110590 | date = 2014-10-22 | pmid = 25338113 | pmc = 4206436 | doi = 10.1371/journal.pone.0110590 | bibcode = 2014PLoSO...9k0590W | doi-access = free }}</ref> The study suggested that while the dolphin's clicks were not affected, their whistles were because of susceptibility to [[auditory masking]].<ref name=":17" /> The noise from the OCTA-KONG was found to have been detectable by the dolphins up to 3.5&nbsp;km away from the original source, and while the noise was not found to be life-threatening it was indicated that prolonged exposure to this noise could be responsible for auditory damage.<ref name=":17" />

=== Marine life ===
Noise pollution is common in marine ecosystems, affecting at least 55 marine species.<ref name="Weilgart-2008">{{cite thesis |vauthors=Weilgart LS |title=The Impact of Ocean Noise Pollution on Marine Biodiversity |date=2008 |url=https://awionline.org/sites/default/files/uploads/documents/Weilgart_Biodiversity_2008-1238105851-10133.pdf |citeseerx=10.1.1.542.534 |s2cid=13176067}}</ref> For many marine populations, sound is their primary sense used for their survival; able to detect sound hundreds to thousands of kilometers away from a source, while vision is limited to tens of meters underwater.<ref name="Weilgart-2008" /> As anthropogenic noises continue to increase, doubling every decade, this compromises the survivability of marine species.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Jovicic ST, Saric ZM, Turajlic SR |date=October 2005 |title=Application of the maximum signal to interference ratio criterion to the adaptive microphone array |journal=Acoustics Research Letters Online |volume=6 |issue=4 |pages=232–237 |doi=10.1121/1.1989785|doi-access=free }}</ref> One study discovered that as [[seismic noise]]s and [[Sonar|naval sonar]] increases in marine ecosystems, [[cetacea]]n, such as whales and dolphins, diversity decreases.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Fernández A, Edwards JF, Rodríguez F, Espinosa de los Monteros A, Herráez P, Castro P, Jaber JR, Martín V, Arbelo M |date=July 2005 |title='Gas and fat embolic syndrome' involving a mass stranding of beaked whales (family Ziphiidae) exposed to anthropogenic sonar signals |journal=Veterinary Pathology |volume=42 |issue=4 |pages=446–57 |doi=10.1354/vp.42-4-446 |pmid=16006604 |s2cid=43571676|doi-access=free }}</ref> Noise pollution has also impaired fish hearing, killed and isolated whale populations, intensified stress response in marine species, and changed species' physiology. Because marine species are sensitive to noise, most marine wildlife are located in undisturbed habitats or areas not exposed to significant anthropogenic noise, limiting suitable habitats to forage and mate. Whales have changed their migration route to avoid anthropogenic noise, as well as altering their calls.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Marine Mammals and Noise |vauthors=Richardson WJ |publisher=Academic Press |year=1995 |location=San Diego}}</ref>

For many marine organisms, sound is the primary means of learning about their environments. For example, many species of marine mammals and fish use sound as their primary means of navigating, communicating, and foraging.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=André M, van der Schaar M, Zaugg S, Houégnigan L, Sánchez AM, Castell JV |date=2011 |title=Listening to the Deep: live monitoring of ocean noise and cetacean acoustic signals |journal=Marine Pollution Bulletin |volume=63 |issue=1–4 |pages=18–26 |doi=10.1016/j.marpolbul.2011.04.038 |pmid=21665016 |bibcode=2011MarPB..63...18A |hdl-access=free |hdl=2117/12808}}</ref> Anthropogenic noise can have a detrimental effect on animals, increasing the risk of death by changing the delicate balance in predator or prey detection<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Gomes DG, Page RA, Geipel I, Taylor RC, Ryan MJ, Halfwerk W |date=September 2016 |title=Bats perceptually weight prey cues across sensory systems when hunting in noise |journal=Science |volume=353 |issue=6305 |pages=1277–1280 |bibcode=2016Sci...353.1277G |doi=10.1126/science.aaf7934 |pmid=27634533 |doi-access=free}}</ref> and avoidance, and interfering with the use of the sounds in communication, especially in relation to reproduction, and in navigation and echolocation.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Gomes DG, Goerlitz HR |date=18 December 2020 |title=Individual differences show that only some bats can cope with noise-induced masking and distraction |journal=PeerJ |volume=8 |pages=e10551 |doi=10.7717/peerj.10551 |pmc=7751433 |pmid=33384901 |doi-access=free}}</ref> These effects then may alter more interactions within a community through indirect ("[[domino]]") effects.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Barton BT, Hodge ME, Speights CJ, Autrey AM, Lashley MA, Klink VP |date=August 2018 |title=Testing the AC/DC hypothesis: Rock and roll is noise pollution and weakens a trophic cascade |journal=Ecology and Evolution |volume=8 |issue=15 |pages=7649–7656 |doi=10.1002/ece3.4273 |pmc=6106185 |pmid=30151178|bibcode=2018EcoEv...8.7649B }}</ref> Acoustic overexposure can lead to temporary or permanent loss of hearing.

Noise pollution may have caused the death of certain species of whales that [[beached whale|beached]] themselves after being exposed to the loud sound of military [[sonar]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Bahamas Marine Mammal Stranding Event of 15–16 March 2000 |url=http://www.nmfs.noaa.gov/pr/pdfs/acoustics/bahamas_stranding.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170201004213/http://www.nmfs.noaa.gov/pr/pdfs/acoustics/bahamas_stranding.pdf |archive-date=1 February 2017 |work=NOAA Fisheries}}</ref> (see also [[Marine mammals and sonar]]) Up until recently, most research on noise impacts has been focused on marine mammals, and to a lesser degree, fish.<ref name="pmid19666180">{{cite journal |vauthors=Codarin A, Wysocki LE, Ladich F, Picciulin M |date=December 2009 |title=Effects of ambient and boat noise on hearing and communication in three fish species living in a marine protected area (Miramare, Italy) |journal=Marine Pollution Bulletin |volume=58 |issue=12 |pages=1880–1887 |bibcode=2009MarPB..58.1880C |doi=10.1016/j.marpolbul.2009.07.011 |pmid=19666180}}</ref><ref name="Kershaw_2016">{{cite web |date=15 December 2006 |title=Noise Seriously Impacts Marine Invertebrates |url=https://www.nrdc.org/experts/francine-kershaw/new-science-noise-seriously-impacts-marine-invertebrates |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200813124342/https://www.nrdc.org/experts/francine-kershaw/new-science-noise-seriously-impacts-marine-invertebrates |archive-date=13 August 2020 |access-date=12 May 2020 |work=New Science |vauthors=Kershaw F}}</ref> In the past few years, scientists have shifted to conducting studies on invertebrates and their responses to anthropogenic sounds in the marine environment. This research is essential, especially considering that invertebrates make up 75% of marine species, and thus compose a large percentage of ocean food webs.<ref name="Kershaw_2016" /> Of the studies that have been conducted, a sizable variety in families of invertebrates have been represented in the research. A variation in the complexity of their sensory systems exists, which allows scientists to study a range of characteristics and develop a better understanding of anthropogenic noise impacts on living organisms.

Even marine invertebrates, such as crabs (''[[Carcinus maenas]]''), have been shown to be negatively affected by ship noise.<ref name="DeepSNcrabs">{{cite web |last=McClain |first=Craig |date=2013-04-03 |title=Loud Noise Makes Crabs Even More Crabby |url=http://deepseanews.com/2013/04/load-noise-makes-crabs-edgy/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200423023923/https://www.deepseanews.com/2013/04/load-noise-makes-crabs-edgy/ |archive-date=2020-04-23 |access-date=2013-04-04 |publisher=Deep Sea News}}</ref><ref name="WaleSimpson2013">{{cite journal |vauthors=Wale MA, Simpson SD, Radford AN |date=April 2013 |title=Size-dependent physiological responses of shore crabs to single and repeated playback of ship noise |journal=Biology Letters |volume=9 |issue=2 |pages=20121194 |doi=10.1098/rsbl.2012.1194 |pmc=3639773 |pmid=23445945}}</ref> Larger crabs were noted to be negatively affected more by the sounds than smaller crabs. Repeated exposure to the sounds did lead to [[acclimatization]].<ref name="WaleSimpson2013" />

Underwater noise pollution due to human activities is also prevalent in the sea, and given that sound travels faster through water than through air, is a major source of disruption of marine ecosystems and does significant harm to sea life, including marine mammals, fish, and invertebrates.<ref>{{cite news |last=Gill |first=Victoria |date=February 4, 2021 |title=Noise pollution 'drowns out ocean soundscape' |work=BBC |location= |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-55939344 |url-status=live |access-date=February 9, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210208175226/https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-55939344 |archive-date=February 8, 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Duarte CM, Chapuis L, Collin SP, Costa DP, Devassy RP, Eguiluz VM, Erbe C, Gordon TA, Halpern BS, Harding HR, Havlik MN, Meekan M, Merchant ND, Miksis-Olds JL, Parsons M, Predragovic M, Radford AN, Radford CA, Simpson SD, Slabbekoorn H, Staaterman E, Van Opzeeland IC, Winderen J, Zhang X, Juanes F |date=February 2021 |title=The soundscape of the Anthropocene ocean |url=https://epic.awi.de/id/eprint/53691/1/DuarteEtAl_2021full.pdf |url-status=live |journal=Science |volume=371 |issue=6529 |pages=eaba4658 |doi=10.1126/science.aba4658 |pmid=33542110 |s2cid=231808113 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210510095454/https://epic.awi.de/id/eprint/53691/1/DuarteEtAl_2021full.pdf |archive-date=2021-05-10 |access-date=2021-05-25}}</ref> The once-calm sea environment is now noisy and chaotic due to ships, oil drilling, sonar equipment, and seismic testing.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Noise Pollution {{!}} National Geographic Society |url=https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/noise-pollution |access-date=2022-08-05 |website=education.nationalgeographic.org}}</ref> The principal anthropogenic noise sources come from merchant ships, naval sonar operations, underwater explosions (nuclear), and seismic exploration by oil and gas industries.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Weilgart |first1=L.S. |date=November 2007 |title=The impacts of anthropogenic ocean noise on cetaceans and implications for management |journal=Canadian Journal of Zoology |volume=85 |issue=11 |pages=1091–1116 |doi=10.1139/z07-101|bibcode=2007CaJZ...85.1091W }}</ref>

Cargo ships generate high levels of noise due to propellers and diesel engines.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Arveson PT, Vendittis DJ |date=January 2000 |title=Radiated noise characteristics of a modern cargo ship |journal=The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America |volume=107 |issue=1 |pages=118–129 |bibcode=2000ASAJ..107..118A |doi=10.1121/1.428344 |pmid=10641625}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=McKenna MF, Ross D, Wiggins SM, Hildebrand JA |year=2011 |title=Measurements of radiated underwater noise from modern merchant ships relevant to noise impacts on marine mammals |journal=The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America |volume=129 |issue=4 |page=2368 |bibcode=2011ASAJ..129.2368M |doi=10.1121/1.3587665}}</ref> This noise pollution significantly raises the low-frequency ambient noise levels above those caused by wind.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Wenz |first=Gordon M |year=1962 |title=Acoustic Ambient Noise in the Ocean: Spectra and Sources |journal=The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America |volume=34 |issue=12 |pages=1936–1956 |bibcode=1962ASAJ...34.1936W |doi=10.1121/1.1909155}}</ref> Animals such as whales that depend on sound for communication can be affected by this noise in various ways. Higher ambient noise levels also cause animals to vocalize more loudly, which is called the [[Lombard effect]]. Researchers have found that [[Humpback whale|humpback whales]]' song lengths were longer when low-frequency sonar was active nearby.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Fristrup KM, Hatch LT, Clark CW |date=June 2003 |title=Variation in humpback whale (Megaptera novaeangliae) song length in relation to low-frequency sound broadcasts |journal=The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America |volume=113 |issue=6 |pages=3411–3424 |bibcode=2003ASAJ..113.3411F |doi=10.1121/1.1573637 |pmid=12822811}}</ref>

Underwater noise pollution is not only limited to oceans, and can occur in freshwater environments as well. Noise pollution has been detected in the Yangtze River, and has resulted in the endangerment of [[Yangtze finless porpoise]]s.<ref name=":03">{{cite journal |vauthors=Wang ZT, Akamatsu T, Duan PX, Zhou L, Yuan J, Li J, Lei PY, Chen YW, Yang YN, Wang KX, Wang D |date=July 2020 |title=Underwater noise pollution in China's Yangtze River critically endangers Yangtze finless porpoises (Neophocaena asiaeorientalis asiaeorientalis) |journal=Environmental Pollution |volume=262 |pages=114310 |doi=10.1016/j.envpol.2020.114310 |pmid=32155559 |bibcode=2020EPoll.26214310W |s2cid=212667318}}</ref> A study conducted on noise pollution in the Yangtze River suggested that the elevated levels of noise pollution altered the temporal hearing threshold of the finless porpoises and posed a significant threat to their survival.<ref name=":03" />

==== Coral Reefs ====
Noise pollution has emerged as a prominent stressor on [[coral reef]] ecosystems. Coral reefs are among the most important ecosystems of the earth, as well as they are of great importance to several communities and cultures around the world, that depend on the reefs for the services they provide, such as fishing and tourism.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://link.springer.com/10.1007/978-3-030-97189-2 |title=Coral Reefs of the Western Pacific Ocean in a Changing Anthropocene |date=2022 |publisher=Springer International Publishing |isbn=978-3-030-97188-5 |editor-last=Zhang |editor-first=Jing |series=Coral Reefs of the World |volume=14 |location=Cham |language=en |doi=10.1007/978-3-030-97189-2 |s2cid=252113958 |editor-last2=Yeemin |editor-first2=Thamasak |editor-last3=Morrison |editor-first3=R. John |editor-last4=Hong |editor-first4=Gi Hoon}}</ref> The reefs contribute substantially to global [[biodiversity]] and productivity, and is a critical part of the support systems of the earth.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Sheppard |first1=Charles |url=https://academic.oup.com/book/32664 |title=The Biology of Coral Reefs |last2=Davy |first2=Simon |last3=Pilling |first3=Graham |last4=Graham |first4=Nicholas |date=2017-11-23 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-182942-0 |language=en |doi=10.1093/oso/9780198787341.001.0001}}</ref> Anthropogenic noise, originating from human activities, has increased underwater noise in the natural sound environment of the reefs.<ref name=":18">{{Cite journal |last1=Ferrier-Pagès |first1=Christine |last2=Leal |first2=Miguel C. |last3=Calado |first3=Ricardo |last4=Schmid |first4=Dominik W. |last5=Bertucci |first5=Frédéric |last6=Lecchini |first6=David |last7=Allemand |first7=Denis |date=2021-04-01 |title=Noise pollution on coral reefs? — A yet underestimated threat to coral reef communities |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0025326X21001636 |journal=Marine Pollution Bulletin |volume=165 |pages=112129 |doi=10.1016/j.marpolbul.2021.112129 |pmid=33588103 |bibcode=2021MarPB.16512129F |s2cid=231935852 |issn=0025-326X}}</ref> The preeminent sources of noise pollution on coral reefs are boat and ship activities.<ref name=":19">{{Cite journal |last=Hildebrand |first=Ja |date=2009-12-03 |title=Anthropogenic and natural sources of ambient noise in the ocean |url=http://www.int-res.com/abstracts/meps/v395/p5-20/ |journal=Marine Ecology Progress Series |language=en |volume=395 |pages=5–20 |doi=10.3354/meps08353 |bibcode=2009MEPS..395....5H |issn=0171-8630|doi-access=free }}</ref> The sound created by the crossing of boats and ships overlaps with the natural sounds of the coral reef organisms. This pollution impacts the various organisms inhabiting the coral reefs in different ways, and ultimately damages the capabilities of the reef and may cause permanent deterioration.<ref name=":20">{{Cite web |last=International Coral Reef Initiative |date=15 December 2023 |title=Noise pollution in coral reefs |url=https://www.icriforum.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/10/Underwater-noise-BRIEF-web-pages.pdf |website=icriforum.org}}</ref>

Healthy coral reefs are naturally noisy, consisting of the sounds of breaking waves and tumbling rocks, as well as the sounds produced by fish and other organisms. [[Marine organisms]] use sound for purposes such as navigating, foraging, communicating, and reproductive activities.<ref name=":20" /> The sensitivity and range of hearing varies across different organisms within the coral reef ecosystem. Among coral reef fish, sound detection and generation can span from 1&nbsp;Hz to 200&nbsp;kHz, while their hearing abilities encompasses frequencies within the range of 100&nbsp;Hz to 1&nbsp;kHz.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Slabbekoorn |first1=Hans |last2=Bouton |first2=Niels |last3=van Opzeeland |first3=Ilse |last4=Coers |first4=Aukje |last5=ten Cate |first5=Carel |last6=Popper |first6=Arthur N. |date=July 2010 |title=A noisy spring: the impact of globally rising underwater sound levels on fish |url=https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tree.2010.04.005 |journal=Trends in Ecology & Evolution |volume=25 |issue=7 |pages=419–427 |doi=10.1016/j.tree.2010.04.005 |pmid=20483503 |bibcode=2010TEcoE..25..419S |issn=0169-5347}}</ref> Several different types of anthropogenic noise are at the same frequencies as marine organisms in coral reefs use for navigation, communication, and other purposes, which disturbs the natural sound environment of the coral reefs.<ref name=":19" />

Anthropogenic sources of noise are generated by a range of different human activities, such as [[shipping]], oil and gas exploration and fishing. The principal cause of noise pollution on coral reefs is boat and ship activities. The use of smaller motorboats, for purposes as fishing or tourism within coral reef areas, and larger vessels, such as [[cargo ship]]s transporting goods, significantly amplifies disturbances to the natural marine soundscape. Noise from shipping and small boats is at the same frequency as sounds generated by marine organisms, and therefore acts as a disruptive element in the sound environment of coral reefs.<ref name=":19" /> Both longer-term and acute effects have been documented on coral reefs organisms after exposure to noise pollution.<ref name=":20" />

Anthropogenic noise is essentially a persistent stressor on coral reefs and its inhabitants.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Dinh |first1=Jason P. |last2=Suca |first2=Justin J. |last3=Lillis |first3=Ashlee |last4=Apprill |first4=Amy |last5=Llopiz |first5=Joel K. |last6=Mooney |first6=T. Aran |date=2018-11-01 |title=Multiscale spatio-temporal patterns of boat noise on U.S. Virgin Island coral reefs |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0025326X18306489 |journal=Marine Pollution Bulletin |volume=136 |pages=282–290 |doi=10.1016/j.marpolbul.2018.09.009 |pmid=30509809 |bibcode=2018MarPB.136..282D |hdl=1912/10781 |s2cid=54554531 |issn=0025-326X|hdl-access=free }}</ref> Both temporary and permanent noise pollution has been found to induce changes in the distributional, physiological, and behavioral patterns of coral reef organisms. Some of the observed changes has been compromised hearing, increased heart rate in [[Coral reef fish|coral fish]] and a reduction in the number of [[larva]]e reaching their settlement areas. Ultimately, the outcome of such changes results in reduced survival rates and altered patterns which potentially alters the entirety of the reef ecosystem.<ref name=":20" />

The white [[damselfish]], a coral reef fish, has been found to have a compromised anti-predator behavior as a result to ship noise. The distraction of anthropogenic noise is possibly distracting the fish, and thereby affecting the escape response and routine swimming of the coral fish.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Jimenez |first1=Laura Velasquez |last2=Fakan |first2=Eric P. |last3=McCormick |first3=Mark I. |date=2020-07-23 |title=Vessel noise affects routine swimming and escape response of a coral reef fish |journal=PLOS ONE |language=en |volume=15 |issue=7 |pages=e0235742 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0235742 |issn=1932-6203 |pmc=7377389 |pmid=32702032 |bibcode=2020PLoSO..1535742V |doi-access=free }}</ref> A study conducted on species of coral larvae, which are crucial for the expansion of coral reefs, discovered that the larvae oriented towards the sound of healthy reefs. The noise created by anthropogenic activities could mask this soundscape, hindering the larvae from swimming towards the reef.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Vermeij |first1=Mark J. A. |last2=Marhaver |first2=Kristen L. |last3=Huijbers |first3=Chantal M. |last4=Nagelkerken |first4=Ivan |last5=Simpson |first5=Stephen D. |date=2010-05-14 |title=Coral Larvae Move toward Reef Sounds |journal=PLOS ONE |language=en |volume=5 |issue=5 |pages=e10660 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0010660 |issn=1932-6203 |pmc=2871043 |pmid=20498831 |bibcode=2010PLoSO...510660V |doi-access=free }}</ref> Noise pollution ultimately poses a threat to the behavioral patterns of several coral organisms.<ref name=":18" />

=== Impacts on communication ===
Terrestrial anthropogenic noise affects the acoustic communications in grasshoppers while producing sound to attract a mate. The fitness and reproductive success of a grasshopper is dependent on its ability to attract a mating partner. Male ''[[Chorthippus biguttulus|Corthippus biguttulus]]'' grasshoppers attract females by using [[stridulation]] to produce courtship songs.<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal| vauthors = Lampe U, Schmoll T, Franzke A, Reinhold K |date= December 2012 | veditors = Patek S |title=Staying tuned: grasshoppers from noisy roadside habitats produce courtship signals with elevated frequency components |journal=Functional Ecology |volume=26|issue=6|pages=1348–1354|doi=10.1111/1365-2435.12000|bibcode= 2012FuEco..26.1348L |doi-access=free }}</ref> The females produce [[Acoustics|acoustic signals]] that are shorter and primarily low frequency and amplitude, in response to the male's song. Research has found that this species of grasshopper changes its mating call in response to loud traffic noise. Lampe and Schmoll (2012) found that male grasshoppers from quiet habitats have a local frequency maximum of about 7319&nbsp;Hz.<ref name=":2" />

In contrast, male grasshoppers exposed to loud traffic noise can create signals with a higher local frequency maximum of 7622&nbsp;Hz. The higher frequencies are produced by the grasshoppers to prevent background noise from drowning out their signals. This information reveals that anthropogenic noise disturbs the acoustic signals produced by insects for communication.<ref name=":2" /> Similar processes of behavior perturbation, behavioral plasticity, and population level shifts in response to noise likely occur in sound-producing marine invertebrates, but more experimental research is needed.<ref name="Breithaupt_2020" /><ref name="Roberts_2017">{{cite journal | vauthors = Roberts L, Elliott M | title = Good or bad vibrations? Impacts of anthropogenic vibration on the marine epibenthos | journal = The Science of the Total Environment | volume = 595 | pages = 255–268 | date = October 2017 | pmid = 28384581 | doi = 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2017.03.117 | bibcode = 2017ScTEn.595..255R }}</ref>

===Impacts on development===
Boat-noise has been shown to affect the embryonic development and fitness of the sea hare ''Stylocheilus striatus''.<ref name=":3">{{cite journal | vauthors = Nedelec SL, Radford AN, Simpson SD, Nedelec B, Lecchini D, Mills SC | title = Anthropogenic noise playback impairs embryonic development and increases mortality in a marine invertebrate | journal = Scientific Reports | volume = 4 | issue = 1 | pages = 5891 | date = July 2014 | pmid = 25080997 | pmc = 4118180 | doi = 10.1038/srep05891 | bibcode = 2014NatSR...4.5891N }}</ref> Anthropogenic noise can alter conditions in the environment that have a negative effect on invertebrate survival. Although embryos can adapt to normal changes in their environment, evidence suggests they are not well adapted to endure the negative effects of noise pollution. Studies have been conducted on the sea hare to determine the effects of boat noise on the early stages of life and the development of embryos. Researchers have studied sea hares from the lagoon of [[Moorea Island]], French Polynesia. In the study, recordings of boat noise were made by using a hydrophone.<ref name=":3" /> In addition, recordings of ambient noise were made that did not contain boat noise. In contrast to ambient noise playbacks, mollusks exposed to boat noise playbacks had a 21% reduction in embryonic development. Additionally, newly hatched larvae experienced an increased mortality rate of 22% when exposed to boat noise playbacks.<ref name=":3" />

===Impacts on ecosystem===
Anthropogenic noise can have negative effects on invertebrates that aid in controlling environmental processes that are crucial to the ecosystem. There are a variety of natural underwater sounds produced by waves in coastal and shelf habitats, and biotic communication signals that do not negatively impact the ecosystem. The changes in behavior of invertebrates vary depending on the type of anthropogenic noise and is similar to natural noisescapes.<ref name=":4">{{cite journal | vauthors = Solan M, Hauton C, Godbold JA, Wood CL, Leighton TG, White P | title = Anthropogenic sources of underwater sound can modify how sediment-dwelling invertebrates mediate ecosystem properties | journal = Scientific Reports | volume = 6 | issue = 1 | pages = 20540 | date = February 2016 | pmid = 26847483 | pmc = 4742813 | doi = 10.1038/srep20540 | bibcode = 2016NatSR...620540S }}</ref>

Experiments have examined the behavior and physiology of the clam (''Ruditapes philippinarum''), the decapod (''Nephrops norvegicus''), and the brittlestar (''Amphiura filiformis'') that are affected by sounds resembling shipping and building noises.<ref name=":4" /> The three invertebrates in the experiment were exposed to continuous broadband noise and impulsive broadband noise. The anthropogenic noise impeded the bioirrigation and burying behavior of ''Nephrops norvegicus''. In addition, the decapod exhibited a reduction in movement. ''[[Ruditapes philippinarum]]'' experienced stress which caused a reduction in surface relocation.<ref name=":4" /> The anthropogenic noise caused the clams to close their valves and relocate to an area above the interface of the sediment-water. This response inhibits the clam from mixing the top layer of the sediment profile and hinders suspension feeding. Sound causes ''[[Amphiura filiformis]]'' to experience changes in physiological processes which results in irregularity of bioturbation behavior.<ref name=":4" />

These invertebrates play an important role in transporting substances for benthic nutrient cycling.<ref name=":4" /> As a result, ecosystems are negatively impacted when species cannot perform natural behaviors in their environment. Locations with shipping lanes, dredging, or commercial harbors are known as continuous broadband sound. Pile-driving, and construction are sources that exhibit impulsive broadband noise. The different types of broadband noise have different effects on the varying species of invertebrates and how they behave in their environment.<ref name=":4" />

Another study found that the valve closures in the Pacific oyster ''Magallana gigas'' was a behavioral response to varying degrees of acoustic amplitude levels and noise frequencies.<ref name=":5">{{cite journal | vauthors = Charifi M, Sow M, Ciret P, Benomar S, Massabuau JC | title = The sense of hearing in the Pacific oyster, Magallana gigas | journal = PLOS ONE | volume = 12 | issue = 10 | pages = e0185353 | date = 2017-10-25 | pmid = 29069092 | pmc = 5656301 | doi = 10.1371/journal.pone.0185353 | veditors = Fernández Robledo JS | doi-access = free | bibcode = 2017PLoSO..1285353C  }}</ref> Oysters perceive near-field sound vibrations by utilizing statocysts. In addition, they have superficial receptors that detect variations in water pressure. Sound pressure waves from shipping can be produced below 200&nbsp;Hz. Pile driving generates noise between 20 and 1000&nbsp;Hz. In addition, large explosions can create frequencies ranging from 10 to 200&nbsp;Hz. ''[[Marginellona gigas|M. gigas]]'' can detect these noise sources because their sensory system can detect sound in the 10 to < 1000&nbsp;Hz range.<ref name=":5" />

The anthropogenic noise produced by human activity has been shown to negatively impact oysters.<ref name=":5" /> Studies have revealed that wide and relaxed valves are indicative of healthy oysters. The oysters are stressed when they do not open their valves as frequently in response to environmental noise. This provides support that the oysters detect noise at low acoustic energy levels.<ref name=":5" /> While we generally understand that marine noise pollution influences charismatic megafauna like whales and dolphins, understanding&nbsp; how invertebrates like oysters perceive and respond to human generated sound can provide further insight about the effects of anthropogenic noise on the larger ecosystem.<ref name=":5" /> The aquatic ecosystems are known to use sound to navigate, find food, and protect themselves. In 2020, one of the worst mass stranding of whales occurred in Australia. Experts suggest that noise pollution plays a major role in the mass stranding of whales.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-01-16 |title=Noise pollution affects dolphins' ability to communicate: What new study says |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/explained/explained-climate/dolphins-coordinate-human-noise-pollution-study-8385113/ |access-date=2023-02-06 |website=The Indian Express |language=en}}</ref>

Noise pollution has also altered avian communities and diversity. Anthropogenic noises have a similar effect on bird population as seen in marine ecosystems, where noises reduce reproductive success; cannot detect predators due to interferences of anthropogenic noises, minimize nesting areas, increase stress response, and [[species abundance]]s and richness declining.<ref name="Francis-2009" /><ref name="Weilgart-2008" /> Certain avian species are more sensitive to noises compared to others, resulting in highly-sensitive birds migrating to less disturbed habitats. There has also been evidence of indirect positive effects of anthropogenic noises on avian populations. It was found that nesting bird predators, such as the western scrub-jay (''[[California scrub jay|Aphelocoma californica]]''), were uncommon in noisy environments (western scrub-jay are sensitive to noise). Therefore, reproductive success for nesting prey communities was higher due to the lack of predators.<ref name="Francis-2009" /> Noise pollution can alter the distribution and abundance of prey species, which can then impact predator populations.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Barber |first1=Jesse R. |last2= Crooks |first2=Kevin R. |last3=Fristrup |first3=Kurt M. |date=2010-03-01 |title=The costs of chronic noise exposure for terrestrial organisms |url= https://www.cell.com/trends/ecology-evolution/abstract/S0169-5347(09)00261-4 |journal=Trends in Ecology & Evolution |language=English |volume=25 |issue=3 |pages=180–189 |doi=10.1016/j.tree.2009.08.002 |issn=0169-5347 |pmid=19762112|bibcode=2010TEcoE..25..180B }}</ref>

==Noise control==
{{Main|Noise control}}
[[Image:TullamarineFwy.jpg|thumb|The [[CityLink]] [[CityLink#New freeways|sound tube]] in [[Flemington, Victoria|Flemington]], [[Melbourne]], [[Australia]], is designed to reduce [[roadway noise]] without detracting from the area's aesthetics.]]
[[File:Man inserting earplugs.jpg|thumb|alt=A man inserting an earplug in his ear to reduce his noise exposure|A man inserting an earplug in his ear to reduce the noise exposure]]

The [[Hierarchy of hazard controls|Hierarchy of Controls]] concept is often used to reduce noise in the environment or the workplace. Engineering noise controls can be used to reduce noise propagation and protect individuals from overexposure. When noise controls are not feasible or adequate, individuals can also take steps to protect themselves from the harmful effects of noise pollution. If people must be around loud sounds, they can protect their ears with hearing protection (e.g., ear plugs or ear muffs).<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/topics/noise/reducenoiseexposure/noisecontrols.html|title=Noise Controls|last=NIOSH|date=Feb 5, 2018|access-date=June 29, 2018|archive-date=December 16, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161216094324/https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/topics/noise/reducenoiseexposure/noisecontrols.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

[[Buy Quiet]] programs and initiatives have arisen in an effort to combat occupational noise exposures. These programs promote the purchase of quieter tools and equipment and encourage manufacturers to design quieter equipment.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/topics/buyquiet/default.html|title=CDC – Buy Quiet – NIOSH Workplace Safety and Health Topics|access-date=25 September 2015|archive-date=8 August 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160808151558/http://www.cdc.gov/niosh/topics/buyquiet/default.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

Noise from roadways and other urban factors can be mitigated by [[urban planning]] and [[Roadway noise|better design of roads]]. [[Roadway noise]] can be reduced by the use of [[noise barrier]]s, limitation of vehicle speeds, alteration of roadway surface texture, limitation of heavy vehicles, use of traffic controls that smooth vehicle flow to reduce braking and acceleration, and tyre design.

An important factor in applying these strategies is a [[computer model]] for [[roadway noise]], that is capable of addressing local [[topography]], [[meteorology]], traffic operations, and hypothetical mitigation. Costs of building-in mitigation can be modest, provided these solutions are sought in the planning stage of a roadway project.

[[Aircraft noise]] can be reduced by using quieter [[jet engine]]s. Altering [[flight path]]s and time of day runway has benefited residents near airports.

==Legal status and regulation==
{{Main|Noise regulation}}

===Country-specific regulations===
Up until the 1970s governments tended to view noise as a "nuisance" rather than an environmental problem.

Many conflicts over noise pollution are handled by negotiation between the emitter and the receiver. Escalation procedures vary by country, and may include action in conjunction with local authorities, in particular the police.

====Egypt====
In 2007, the Egyptian National Research Center found that the average noise level in central Cairo was 90&nbsp;decibels and that the noise never fell below 70&nbsp;decibels. Noise limits set by law in 1994 are not enforced.<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2008-01-26|title=Cairo cacophony: Noise pollution 'kills in much the same way as chronic stress'|url=https://www.dailystar.com.lb//News/Middle-East/2008/Jan-26/76240-cairo-cacophony-noise-pollution-kills-in-much-the-same-way-as-chronic-stress.ashx|access-date=2020-09-20|journal=The Daily Star|archive-date=2021-08-12|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210812043207/https://www.dailystar.com.lb//News/Middle-East/2008/Jan-26/76240-cairo-cacophony-noise-pollution-kills-in-much-the-same-way-as-chronic-stress.ashx|url-status=live}}</ref> In 2018, the World Hearing Index declared Cairo to be the world's second-noisiest city.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2018-03-14|title=Cairo ranked second noisiest city in the world|url=https://egyptindependent.com/cairo-ranked-second-noisiest-city-world/|access-date=2020-09-20|website=Egypt Independent|language=en-US|archive-date=2020-07-31|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200731175419/https://www.egyptindependent.com/cairo-ranked-second-noisiest-city-world/|url-status=live}}</ref>

====India====
Noise pollution is a major problem in India.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.business-standard.com/article/news-ians/freedom-from-noise-pollution-will-be-true-independence-comment-special-to-ians-116082900219_1.html |title=Freedom from noise pollution will be true independence (Comment: Special to IANS)|last=IANS|date=29 August 2016|newspaper=Business Standard India|access-date=31 August 2016|archive-date=8 September 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160908051614/http://www.business-standard.com/article/news-ians/freedom-from-noise-pollution-will-be-true-independence-comment-special-to-ians-116082900219_1.html|url-status=live}}</ref> The government of India has rules and regulations against [[firecrackers]] and loudspeakers, but enforcement is extremely lax.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://cpcb.nic.in/faq.php|title=Central Pollution Control Board: FAQs |publisher=Indian Central Pollution Control Board|access-date=2 July 2018|archive-date=2 July 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180702175933/http://cpcb.nic.in/faq.php|url-status=live}}</ref> [[Awaaz Foundation]] is a non-governmental organization in India working to control noise pollution from various sources through advocacy, public interest litigation, awareness, and educational campaigns since 2003.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.hindustantimes.com/India-news/Mumbai/Rising-festival-noise-undoing-past-efforts/Article1-939539.aspx |title=Rising festival noise undoing past efforts' |access-date=2012-10-31 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130517052450/http://www.hindustantimes.com/India-news/Mumbai/Rising-festival-noise-undoing-past-efforts/Article1-939539.aspx |archive-date=2013-05-17 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Despite increased enforcement and stringency of laws now being practiced in urban areas, rural areas are still affected.<ref name="Green Tribunal, NDTV">{{cite web | title = Strictly Adhere To Supreme Court Guidelines On Noise Pollution | work = Green Tribunal, NDTV | url = https://www.ndtv.com/india-news/strictly-adhere-to-supreme-court-guidelines-on-noise-pollution-green-tribunal-1253453 | access-date = 2018-03-21 | archive-date = 2018-03-21 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20180321192526/https://www.ndtv.com/india-news/strictly-adhere-to-supreme-court-guidelines-on-noise-pollution-green-tribunal-1253453 | url-status = live }}</ref>

The Supreme Court of India had banned playing of music on loudspeakers after 10&nbsp;p.m. In 2015, The National Green Tribunal directed authorities in Delhi to ensure strict adherence to guidelines on noise pollution, saying noise is more than just a nuisance as it can produce serious psychological stress. However, implementation of the law remains poor.<ref name="Green Tribunal, NDTV"/>

====Sweden====
How noise emissions should be reduced, without the industry being hit too hard, is a major problem in environmental care in Sweden today. The [[Swedish Work Environment Authority]] has set an input value of 80&nbsp;dB for maximum sound exposure for eight hours. In workplaces where there is a need to be able to converse comfortably the background noise level should not exceed 40&nbsp;dB.<ref>{{Citation|url=https://www.av.se/globalassets/filer/publikationer/foreskrifter/buller-foreskrifter-afs2005-16.pdf#page=15|title=Arbetsmiljövärkets Författningssamling|access-date=2019-05-09|language=sv|archive-date=2020-06-15|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200615030817/https://www.av.se/globalassets/filer/publikationer/foreskrifter/buller-foreskrifter-afs2005-16.pdf#page=15|url-status=live}}</ref> The government of Sweden has taken [[soundproofing]] and acoustic [[Absorption (acoustics)|absorbing]] actions, such as [[noise barrier]]s and [[active noise control]].

====United Kingdom====
Figures compiled by rockwool, the [[mineral wool]] [[Building insulation|insulation]] manufacturer, based on responses from local authorities to a [[Freedom of Information Act 2000|Freedom of Information Act]] (FOI) request reveal in the period April 2008 – 2009 [[county council|UK councils]] received 315,838 complaints about noise pollution from private residences. This resulted in environmental health officers across the UK serving 8,069 [[noise abatement]] notices or citations under the terms of the Anti-Social Behavior (Scotland) Act. In the last 12 months, 524 confiscations of equipment have been authorized involving the removal of powerful speakers, stereos and televisions. [[Westminster City Council]] has received more complaints per head of population than any other district in the UK with 9,814 grievances about noise, which equates to 42.32 complaints per thousand residents. Eight of the top 10 councils ranked by complaints per 1,000 residents are located in [[London]].<ref>
{{cite news
 |title       = London is home to the noisiest neighbours
 |url         = http://www.thisislondon.co.uk/standard/article-23714071-details/London+is+home+to+the+noisiest+neighbours/article.do
 |newspaper   = [[London Evening Standard]]
 |url-status     = dead
 |archive-url  = https://archive.today/20130114032609/http://www.thisislondon.co.uk/standard/article-23714071-details/London+is+home+to+the+noisiest+neighbours/article.do
 |archive-date = 2013-01-14
}}</ref>

====United States====
The [[Noise Control Act]] of 1972 established a U.S. national policy to promote an environment for all Americans free from noise that jeopardizes their health and welfare. In the past, [[Environmental Protection Agency]] coordinated all federal noise control activities through its Office of Noise Abatement and Control. The [[United States Environmental Protection Agency|EPA]] phased out the office's funding in 1982 as part of a shift in federal noise control policy to transfer the primary responsibility of regulating noise to state and local governments. However, the Noise Control Act of 1972 and the Quiet Communities Act of 1978 were never rescinded by Congress and remain in effect today, although essentially unfunded.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.epa.gov/history/epa-history-noise-and-noise-control-act|title=EPA History: Noise and the Noise Control Act|publisher=U.S. Environmental Protection Agency|year=1982|access-date=June 29, 2018|archive-date=April 16, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200416182126/https://www.epa.gov/history/epa-history-noise-and-noise-control-act|url-status=live}}</ref>

The [[National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health]] (NIOSH) at the [[Centers for Disease Control and Prevention]] (CDC) researches noise exposure in occupational settings and recommends a [[Recommended exposure limit|Recommended Exposure Limit]] (REL) for an 8-hour time-weighted average (TWA) or work shift of 85&nbsp;dB(A) and for impulse noise (instant events such as bangs or crashes) of 140&nbsp;dB(A).<ref name=":11" /><ref name=":14" /> The agency published this recommendation along with its origin, noise measurement devices, hearing loss prevention programs, and research needs in 1972 (later revised June 1998) as an approach in preventing occupational noise-related hearing loss.<ref name=":14" />

The [[Occupational Safety and Health Administration]] (OSHA) within the [[United States Department of Labor|Department of Labor]] issues enforceable standards to protect workers from occupational noise hazards. The permissible exposure limit (PEL) for noise is a TWA of 90&nbsp;dB(A) for an eight-hour work day.<ref name=":23" /><ref name=":15">{{Cite web|title=Occupational Noise Exposure - Overview {{!}} Occupational Safety and Health Administration|url=https://www.osha.gov/noise#loud|access-date=2020-11-30|website=www.osha.gov|archive-date=2020-11-29|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201129114341/https://www.osha.gov/noise#loud|url-status=live}}</ref> However, in manufacturing and service industries, if the TWA is greater than 85&nbsp;dB(A), employers must implement a [[Hearing conservation program|Hearing Conservation Program]].<ref name=":15" />

The [[Federal Aviation Administration]] (FAA) regulates [[aircraft noise]] by specifying the maximum noise level that individual civil aircraft can emit through requiring aircraft to meet certain noise certification standards. These standards designate changes in maximum noise level requirements by "stage" designation. The U.S. noise standards are defined in the Code of Federal Regulations (CFR) Title 14 Part 36 – Noise Standards: Aircraft Type and Airworthiness Certification (14 CFR Part 36).<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.faa.gov/regulations_policies/advisory_circulars/index.cfm/go/document.information/documentID/22942|title=C 36-1H – Noise Levels for U.S. Certificated and Foreign Aircraft|publisher=U.S. Federal Aviation Administration|date=Nov 15, 2001|access-date=June 29, 2018|archive-date=March 26, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200326201108/https://www.faa.gov/regulations_policies/advisory_circulars/index.cfm/go/document.information/documentID/22942|url-status=live}}</ref> The [[Federal Aviation Administration|FAA]] also pursues a program of aircraft noise control in cooperation with the aviation community.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.faa.gov/about/office_org/headquarters_offices/apl/noise_emissions/airport_aircraft_noise_issues/|title=Aircraft Noise Issues|publisher=U.S. Federal Aviation Administration|date=Jan 9, 2018|access-date=June 29, 2018|archive-date=January 10, 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120110122305/http://www.faa.gov/about/office_org/headquarters_offices/apl/noise_emissions/airport_aircraft_noise_issues/|url-status=live}}</ref> The FAA has set up a process to report for anyone who may be impacted by aircraft noise.<ref>{{cite web | url = https://www.faa.gov/about/office_org/headquarters_offices/apl/noise_emissions/airport_aircraft_noise_issues/noise/ | title = Aviation-related noise complaints | publisher = U.S. Federal Aviation Administration | access-date = 2018-07-27 | archive-date = 2018-07-28 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20180728002912/https://www.faa.gov/about/office_org/headquarters_offices/apl/noise_emissions/airport_aircraft_noise_issues/noise/ | url-status = live }}</ref>

The [[Federal Highway Administration]] (FHWA) developed noise regulations to control [[Roadway noise|highway noise]] as required by the Federal-Aid Highway Act of 1970. The regulations requires promulgation of traffic noise-level criteria for various land use activities, and describe procedures for the abatement of highway traffic noise and construction noise.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/environment/noise/|title=Highway Traffic Noise|publisher=Federal Highway Administration|date=June 6, 2017|access-date=June 29, 2018|archive-date=April 1, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200401083211/https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/environment/noise/|url-status=live}}</ref>

The [[United States Department of Housing and Urban Development|Department of Housing and Urban Development]] (HUD) noise standards as described in 24 CFR part 51, Subpart B provides minimum national standards applicable to HUD programs to protect citizen against excessive noise in their communities and places of residence. For instance, all sites whose environmental or community noise exposure exceeds the day night average sound level (DNL) of 65 (dB) are considered noise-impacted areas, it defines "Normally Unacceptable" noise zones where community noise levels are between 65 and 75&nbsp;dB, for such locations, noise abatement and noise attenuation features must be implemented. Locations where the DNL is above 75&nbsp;dB are considered "Unacceptable" and require approval by the Assistant Secretary for Community Planning and Development.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.hudexchange.info/programs/environmental-review/noise-abatement-and-control/|title=Noise Abatement and Control|publisher=US Department of Housing and Urban Development|date=April 1, 2013|access-date=June 29, 2018|archive-date=June 29, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180629211607/https://www.hudexchange.info/programs/environmental-review/noise-abatement-and-control/|url-status=live}}</ref>

The [[United States Department of Transportation|Department of Transportation]]'s Bureau of Transportation Statistics has created a to provide access to comprehensive aircraft and road noise data on national and county levels.<ref>{{cite web | publisher = U.S. Department of Transportation | url = https://maps.bts.dot.gov/arcgis/apps/webappviewer/index.html?id=a303ff5924c9474790464cc0e9d5c9fb | title = National Transportation Noise Map | access-date = 2018-07-27 | archive-date = 2018-01-21 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20180121193525/https://maps.bts.dot.gov/arcgis/apps/webappviewer/index.html?id=a303ff5924c9474790464cc0e9d5c9fb | url-status = live }}</ref> The map aims to assist city planners, elected officials, scholars, and residents to gain access to up-to-date aviation and Interstate highway noise information.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.transportation.gov/highlights/national-transportation-noise-map|title=National Transportation Noise Map|publisher=U.S. Department of Transportation|date=Mar 28, 2018|access-date=July 27, 2018|archive-date=March 26, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200326201108/https://www.transportation.gov/highlights/national-transportation-noise-map|url-status=live}}</ref>

States and local governments typically have very specific statutes on [[building codes]], [[urban planning]], and roadway development. Noise laws and ordinances vary widely among municipalities and indeed do not even exist in some cities. An ordinance may contain a general prohibition against making noise that is a nuisance, or it may set out specific guidelines for the level of noise allowable at certain times of the day and for certain activities.<ref>{{cite web |url= https://www.nonoise.org/lawlib.htm |title=Noise Pollution Clearinghouse Law Library |publisher = Noise Pollution Clearinghouse |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/19980611020207/http://www.nonoise.org/lawlib.htm |archive-date=1998-06-11 |url-status=dead |access-date=June 29, 2018 }}</ref> Noise laws classify sound into three categories. First is ambient noise, which refers to sound pressure of all-encompassing noise associated with a given environment. The second is continuous noise, which could be steady or fluctuating, but continues for more than an hour. The third is cyclically varying noise, which could be steady or fluctuating, but occurs repetitively at reasonably uniform intervals of time.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Borough of Brielle, NJ: NOISE CONTROL. |url=https://ecode360.com/36068456 |access-date=2022-06-16 |website=Borough of Brielle, NJ Code |language=en-US}}</ref>

[[New York City]] instituted the first comprehensive noise code in 1985. The [[Portland, Oregon|Portland]] Noise Code includes potential fines of up to $5000 per infraction and is the basis for other major U.S. and Canadian city noise ordinances.<ref>{{cite web | work = Auditor's Office | publisher = City of Portland, Oregon | url = http://www.portlandonline.com/auditor/index.cfm?c=28705 | title = Chapter 18.02 Title ''Noise Control | access-date = April 20, 2009 | archive-date = July 15, 2011 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110715110053/http://www.portlandonline.com/auditor/index.cfm?c=28705 | url-status = live }}</ref>

===World Health Organization===

====European Region====
In 1995, the [[World Health Organization]] (WHO) European Region released guidelines on regulating community noise.<ref name=":02" /> The WHO European Region subsequently released other versions of the guidelines, with the most recent version circulated in 2018.<ref name=":16">{{Cite web|last=WHO Regional Office for Europe|date=2018|title=Environmental Noise Guidelines for the European Region|url=https://www.euro.who.int/en/publications/abstracts/environmental-noise-guidelines-for-the-european-region-2018|access-date=2020-11-30|archive-date=2020-12-13|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201213045618/https://www.euro.who.int/en/publications/abstracts/environmental-noise-guidelines-for-the-european-region-2018|url-status=live}}</ref> The guidelines provide the most up-to-date evidence from research conducted in Europe and other parts of the world on non-occupational noise exposure and its relationship to physical and mental health outcomes. The guidelines provide recommendations for limits and preventive measures regarding various noise sources (road traffic, railway, aircraft, wind turbine) for day-evening-night average and nighttime average levels. Recommendations for leisure noise in 2018 were conditional and based on the equivalent sound pressure level during an average 24-hour period in a year without weights for nighttime noise (LA<sub>eq, 24&nbsp;hrs</sub>); WHO set the recommended limit to 70&nbsp;dB(A).<ref name=":16" />
{| class="wikitable"
|+2018 WHO European Regional Office Environmental Noise Guidelines<ref name=":16" /> 
!Noise Source
!Recommendation for 
Day-Evening-Night Average Level (L<sub>den</sub>)
!Recommendation for 
Nighttime Average Noise (L<sub>night</sub>)
|-
|Road traffic
|53&nbsp;dB(A)
|45&nbsp;dB(A)
|-
|Rail
|54&nbsp;dB(A)
|44&nbsp;dB(A)
|-
|Aircraft
|45&nbsp;dB(A)
|40&nbsp;dB(A)
|-
|Wind turbine
|45&nbsp;dB(A)
|no recommendation
|}

== See also ==
{{div col |colwidth=27em}}
*[[Acoustical engineering]]
*[[Aircraft noise pollution]]
*[[Buy Quiet]]
*[[Environmental hazard]]
*[[Environmental noise]]
*[[Health effects from noise]]
*[[Human auditory ecology]]
*[[Infrasound]]
*[[International Noise Awareness Day]]
*[[Light pollution]]
*[[Loud music]]
*[[Loudspeakers in mosques]]
*[[NIMBY]]
*[[Noise Abatement Society]]
*[[Noise and vibration on maritime vessels]]
*[[Noise calculation]]
*[[Noise control]]
*[[Noise measurement]]
*[[Noise map]]
*[[Noise regulation]]
*[[Occupational noise]]
*[[Safe listening]]
*[[World Hearing Day]]
{{div col end}}

== References ==
{{reflist}}

== External links ==
{{Commons category}}
*[https://www.nonoise.org/ Noise Pollution Clearinghouse]
*[https://vimeo.com/155891645 Noise effects. Beyond annoyance]
* [https://www.who.int/docstore/peh/noise/Comnoise-1.pdf World Health Organization – Guidelines for Community Noise]
* [http://www.bioneurologics.gr/astheneies/neurology-psychiatry/the-effects-of-noisy-urban-environment-may-cause-the-loss-of-memory-to-elderly-person/ The effects of noisy urban environment may cause the loss of memory to elderly person (abstract published in 1st World Congress of Health and Urban Environment book.)]
* [https://www.wired.com/2008/05/st-thompson-22/ Clive Thompson on How Man-Made Noise May Be Altering Earth's Ecology]
* [https://www.eea.europa.eu/media/newsreleases/eea-draws-the-first-map-of-europe2019s-noise-exposure EEA draws the first map of Europe's noise exposure – All press releases — EEA]
*[https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/ask-the-brains-background-noise/ Scientific American: How does background noise affect our concentration?] (2010-01-04)
*[https://noise-planet.org/noisecapture.html Noise-Planet: app to make an open source noise map of environmental noise]
*[https://www.sciencealert.com/noise-pollution-hurts-animals-heres-how-to-turn-the-volume-down Noise Pollution Hurts Animals. Here's How to Turn The Volume Down]. ''[[ScienceAlert]]''. August 23, 2022.

{{Pollution}}
{{Noise|state=uncollapsed}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Noise Pollution}}
[[Category:Noise pollution| ]]
[[Category:Pollution]]
[[Category:Audiology]]
[[Category:Sounds by type]]
[[Category:Urbanization]]
[[Category:Urban planning]]
[[Category:Acoustics]]
[[Category:Environment and health]]