View source for Manuel Roxas

{{Short description|President of the Philippines from 1946 to 1948}}
{{About|the Filipino president|his grandson|Mar Roxas|other uses|Roxas (disambiguation)|and|President Roxas (disambiguation){{!}}President Roxas}}
{{Philippine name|Acuña|Roxas}} 
{{Use mdy dates|date=February 2015}}
{{Use Philippine English|date=January 2023}}
{{Infobox officeholder
| image               = Manuel Roxas 2.jpg
| office              = President of the Philippines
| vicepresident       = [[Elpidio Quirino]]
| term_start          = May 28, 1946
| term_end            = April 15, 1948

| predecessor         = [[Sergio Osmeña]]
| successor           = [[Elpidio Quirino]]
| office2             = President of the Senate of the Philippines
| term_start2         = July 9, 1945
| term_end2           = May 25, 1946
| predecessor2        = [[Manuel L. Quezon]]
| successor2          = [[José Avelino]]
| office3             = [[Senator of the Philippines]]
| term_start3         = July 9, 1945
| term_end3           = May 25, 1946
| office4             = [[Executive Secretary (Philippines)|Executive Secretary]]
| president4          = [[Manuel L. Quezon]]
| term_start4         = December 24, 1941
| term_end4           = March 26, 1942
| predecessor4        = [[Jorge B. Vargas]]
| successor4          = [[Arturo Rotor]]
| office5             = [[Secretary of Finance (Philippines)|Secretary of Finance]]
| term_start5         = August 21, 1941
| term_end5           = December 29, 1941
| president5          = [[Manuel L. Quezon]]
| predecessor5        = [[Antonio de las Alas]]
| successor5          = Serafin Marabut
| office6             = 2nd [[Speaker of the Philippine House of Representatives]]
| term_start6         = October 27, 1922
| term_end6           = May 5, 1934
| predecessor6        = [[Sergio Osmeña]]
| successor6          = [[Quintin Paredes]]
| office7             = Member of the [[House of Representatives of the Philippines|House of Representatives]] from [[Capiz's 1st congressional district|Capiz's 1st district]]<br />Member of the [[National Assembly of the Philippines|National Assembly]] (1935–1938)
| term_start7         = June 6, 1922
| term_end7           = December 30, 1938
| predecessor7        = Antonio Habana
| successor7          = Ramon Arnaldo
| order8              = 6th
| office8             = Governor of Capiz
| term_start8         = 1919
| term_end8           = 1922
| predecessor8        = [[Jose Hontiveros]]
| successor8          = Rafael Acuña
| office9             = Member of the [[Roxas, Capiz|Capiz]] Municipal Council
| term_start9         = 1917
| term_end9           = 1919
| birth_name          = Manuel Acuña Roxas
| birth_date          = {{birth date|1892|1|1}}
| birth_place         = [[Roxas, Capiz|Capiz]], Capiz, [[Spanish Empire|Captaincy General of the Philippines]], [[Spanish East Indies]]
| death_date          = {{death date and age|1948|4|15|1892|1|1}}
| death_place         = [[Clark Air Base]], [[Angeles City|Angeles]], [[Pampanga]], Philippines
| death_cause         = [[Heart attack]]
| resting_place       = [[Manila North Cemetery]], Santa Cruz, Manila, Philippines
| party               = [[Liberal Party (Philippines)|Liberal]] (1946–1948)
| otherparty          = [[Nacionalista Party|Nacionalista]] (1917–1946)
| profession          = [[Lawyer]], [[soldier]]
| spouse              = {{marriage|[[Trinidad Roxas|Trinidad de Leon]]|1921}}
| children            = {{hlist|[[Gerardo Roxas|Gerardo Manuel Roxas]]|Ruby Roxas}} ''Out of wedlock with Juanita Muriedas McIlvain {{smaller|(disputed by the De Leon-Roxas lineage)}}'':<ref>{{cite web | url=https://thesmartlocal.com/philippines/miss-universe-facts/ | title=10 Little-Known Miss Universe Facts That Only Dedicated Fans Know | date=May 14, 2021 }}</ref> <br/> {{hlist|Rosario M. Roxas<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.philstar.com/lifestyle/young-star/2017/07/27/1722334/what-inspires-you/amp/ | title=What inspires you? | website=[[The Philippine STAR]] | date=July 27, 2017 }}</ref>|Consuelo M. Roxas<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://lifestyle.inquirer.net/228309/from-famous-mothers-to-accomplished-daughters-lessons-across-generations/|title=From famous mothers to accomplished daughters: Lessons across generations|date=2016-05-07|website=Inquirer Lifestyle|language=en-US|access-date=2019-04-02}}</ref>|Manuel "Manny" M. Roxas Jr.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.dignitymemorial.com/obituaries/las-vegas-nv/manuel-roxas-9825704 | title=Manuel Roxas Obituary – Las Vegas, NV }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://lifestyle.inquirer.net/174882/manuel-roxas-had-yet-another-love-says-joma-sison/ | title=Manuel Roxas had yet another love, says Joma Sison | date=October 18, 2014 }}</ref>}}
| alma_mater          = [[University of Manila]]<br />[[University of the Philippines College of Law]] ([[Bachelor of Laws|LL.B]])
| signature           = Manuel Roxas autograph.svg
<!--Military service-->
| allegiance          = {{flag|Philippines|1936}}<!---Flag at the time of service--->
| branch              = [[Philippine Commonwealth Army]]
| serviceyears        = 1941–1945
| rank                = 
| unit                = 
| commands            = 
| battles             = [[World War II]] <br /> * [[Japanese occupation of the Philippines|Japanese Occupation of the Philippines (1942–1945)]] <br /> * [[Philippines campaign (1944-45)|Philippines Campaign (1944–1945)]]
| awards              = 
| order               = 5th
| order2              = 2nd
| module              = {{Listen|pos=center|embed=yes|filename=Presidential address of Manuel Roxas on Constitution Day (1948).ogg|title=Manuel Roxas's voice|type=speech|description= Excerpt from his presidential address on Constitution day <br /> (Recorded on February 8, 1948)}}
}}

'''Manuel Acuña Roxas''' {{post-nominals|list=[[Quezon Service Cross|QSC]]}} ({{IPA|tl|maˈnwel aˈkuɲa ˈɾɔhas|lang}}; January 1, 1892 – April 15, 1948) was a Filipino lawyer and politician who served as the fifth [[president of the Philippines]] from 1946 until his death in 1948. He served briefly as the third and last President of the [[Commonwealth of the Philippines]] from May 28, 1946, to July 4, 1946, and became the first President of the Independent [[History of the Philippines (1946–65)|Third Philippine Republic]] after the [[United States]] ceded its sovereignty over the [[Philippines]].

==Early life and education==
Roxas was born on January 1, 1892, in [[Roxas City|Capiz]], Capiz (present-day Roxas City) to [[Gerardo Roxas y Luis]] and Rosario Acuña y Villaruz. He was a [[Posthumous birth|posthumous child]], as his father died after being mortally wounded by the Spanish [[Guardia Civil]] the year before. He and his older brother, Mamerto, were raised by their mother and her father, ''Don'' Eleuterio Acuña. His other siblings from his father included Leopoldo and Margarita, while he also had half-siblings, Consuelo, Leopoldo, Ines, and Evaristo Picazo after his mother remarried.

Roxas received his early education in the public schools of Capiz and attended [[St. Joseph's College (Hong Kong)|St. Joseph's College]] in [[Hong Kong]] at age 12, but due to homesickness, he went back to Capiz. He eventually transferred to [[Manila High School (Intramuros)|Manila High School]], graduating with honors in 1909.

Roxas began his law studies at a private law school established by [[George A. Malcolm]], the first dean of the [[University of the Philippines College of Law]]. On his second year, he enrolled at [[University of the Philippines]], where he was elected president of his class and the student council. In 1913, Roxas obtained his law degree, graduated class [[valedictorian]], and subsequently topped the bar examinations with a grade of 92% that same year. He then became professor of law at the [[Philippine Law School]] and [[National University (Philippines)|National University]].<ref name="legacy" /> He served as secretary to Judge [[Cayetano Arellano]] of the [[Supreme Court of the Philippines|Supreme Court]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Zafra |first=Nicolas |title=Maikling Kasaysayan ng Pilipinas |publisher=Alemar-Phoenix Publishing House, Inc. |year=1972 |location=Quezon City, Philippines |pages=171 |language=Tagalog}}</ref>

==Political career==
{{more citations needed|section|date=March 2018}}
[[File:Manuel Roxas, Speaker of H., Phillippines LOC npcc.10140.jpg|thumb|left|House Speaker Roxas in 1923]]

In 1917, Roxas became a member of the [[municipal council]] of [[Roxas City, Capiz|Capiz]], serving until 1919.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://malacanang.gov.ph/manuel-roxas-2/|title=Manuel Roxas|website=Presidential Museum and Library|access-date=November 18, 2020}}</ref> He then became the youngest provincial [[Governor of Capiz|governor]] of [[Capiz]], and served in that capacity from 1919 to 1922.<ref name="legacy">{{cite web|url=https://legacy.senate.gov.ph/senators/former_senators/manuel_roxas.htm|title=Senators Profile – Manuel A. Roxas|accessdate=June 29, 2022|website=Senate of the Philippines}}</ref>

Roxas was elected to the [[House of Representatives of the Philippines|Philippine House of Representatives]] in 1922, and for twelve consecutive years was [[Speaker of the House of Representatives of the Philippines|Speaker of the House]]. He served as a member of the [[1934 Philippine Constitutional Convention election|Constitutional Convention of 1934]], [[Secretary of Finance (Philippines)|secretary of finance]], chairman of the National Economic Council, chairman of the National Development Company, and served in many other government corporations and agencies. He also served as a brigadier general in the [[United States Army Forces in the Far East]] (USAFFE), was a recognized guerrilla leader and military leader of the Philippine Commonwealth Army. Roxas became one of the leaders of the [[Nacionalista Party]], which was dominated by the ''hacendado'' class who owned the vast ''hacienda'' estates that made up most of the cultivated land in the Philippines.{{sfn|Buhite|2008|p=26}} The same ''hacendado'' elite who dominated the Philippines under Spanish rule continued to be the dominant social element under American rule.{{sfn|Buhite|2008|p=26}} Roxas himself was a ''hacendado'', who had used his wealth to further his political ambitions.{{sfn|Buhite|2008|p=26}} The politics of the Philippines were characterized by a clientistic system under which politicians would use their offices to create patronage networks, and personal differences between politicians were far greater than any ideological differences.{{sfn|Buhite|2008|p=26}}

With the [[Great Depression]], the Philippines started to be seen as a liability in the United States as demands were made to end Filipino immigration to the United States and end the tariff free importation of Filipino agriculture into the American market as many American farmers complained they could not compete with Filipino farmers.{{sfn|Hutchinson|1971|p=162}} To end Filipino immigration and access to the American market, many U.S. congressional leaders favored granting immediate independence to the Philippines.{{sfn|Hutchinson|1971|p=162}} At the same time that the [[United States Congress|U.S. Congress]] was debating granting independence to the Philippines, many Filipino leaders were worried by the increasing assertive claims being made by [[Japan]] that all of [[East Asia]] was its sphere of influence.{{sfn|Hutchinson|1971|p=161}} In a role reversal, it was the Filipinos who were opposed to immediate independence, which was proposed in the [[Hare–Hawes–Cutting Act|Hare-Hawes-Cutting Bill]] being debated within the halls of Congress.{{sfn|Hutchinson|1971|p=162}}

In early 1930, Roxas flew to the United States with [[Sergio Osmeña]] to lobby the U.S. Congress to go slow on the granting of independence in the Hare-Hawes-Cutting Bill.{{sfn|Hutchinson|1971|p=162}} Aside from the fear of Japan, many Filipinos were deeply worried about the plans to impose heavy tariffs on Filipino agriculture after independence, which provided another reason to go slowly with independence.{{sfn|Hutchinson|1971|p=162}} In [[Washington, D.C.|Washington]], Roxas lobbied U.S. government leaders such as [[United States Secretary of State|Secretary of State]] [[Henry L. Stimson|Henry Stimson]] and [[United States Secretary of War|Secretary of War]] [[Patrick J. Hurley|Patrick Hurley]].{{sfn|Hutchinson|1971|p=163}} Roxas testified before the U.S. Congress that he favored Philippine independence, saying the Filipinos had fulfilled the "stable government" provision of the [[Jones Law (Philippines)|Jones Act of 1916]], which mandated that independence be granted when Filipinos proved that they had a "stable government".{{sfn|Hutchinson|1971|p=164}} However, Roxas went on to testify that "with the granting of tariff autonomy, serious difficulties may arise".{{sfn|Hutchinson|1971|p=164}} In common with the rest of the Filipino elite, Roxas saw the plans of the U.S. Congress to impose tariffs on Filipino goods after independence as an economic disaster for the Philippines.{{sfn|Hutchinson|1971|p=164}}

In May 1930, Roxas reported to [[Manuel L. Quezon]] that both Hurley and Stimson had testified before the U.S. Congress saying that the Philippines were not ready for independence nor would be for anytime in the foreseeable future, which he thought had a major impact on the U.S. Congress.{{sfn|Hutchinson|1971|p=166}} Roxas advised that Quezon should now try to appease Senators [[Harry B. Hawes]] and [[Bronson M. Cutting|Bronson B. Cutting]] by sending them a message saying he wanted immediate independence, which Roxas felt was not likely at present.{{sfn|Hutchinson|1971|p=166}} On May 24, 1930, Quezon followed Roxas's advice and sent public telegrams to both Hawes and Cutting saying the Filipinos "crave their national freedom".{{sfn|Hutchinson|1971|p=166}} In a compromise, the Senate Insular Committee advised on June 2, 1930, that the Philippines should be given more autonomy to prepare for independence within the next 19 years.{{sfn|Hutchinson|1971|p=166}} Upon his return to the Philippines in 1930, Roxas founded a new pro-independence group called Ang Bagong Katipunan ("The New Association") that proposed disbanding all political parties under its fold and the unification of national culture in order to negotiate better with the United States.{{sfn|Hutchinson|1971|p=167}} The plans for ''Ang Bagong Katipunan'' created widespread opposition, as the group was seen as too authoritarian and as a vehicle for Roxas to challenge Quezon for the leadership of the Nacionalista Party.{{sfn|Hutchinson|1971|p=167}} Ang Bagong Katipunan was soon disbanded.{{sfn|Hutchinson|1971|p=167}}

In the summer of 1931, Hurley visited the Philippines to assess its readiness for independence.{{sfn|Hutchinson|1971|p=168}} In talks with Quezon, Osmeña, and Roxas, it was agreed that the Philippines should become an autonomous commonwealth under American rule and would be allowed to keep exporting [[sugar]] and [[coconut oil]] to the United States at the present rate.{{sfn|Hutchinson|1971|p=168}} Roxas became seen as one of the less radical independence leaders, who favored "going slow" on independence to keep access to the U.S. market.{{sfn|Hutchinson|1971|pp=168–169}} At the time, Roxas cynically stated he and the other ''Nacionalistas'' had to make "radical statements for immediate, complete and absolute independence to maintain hold of the people".{{sfn|Hutchinson|1971|p=169}} Filipino politics tended to be based more on personal loyalties to a politician who would reward his followers via patronage rather than ideological issues, and despite criticism of the ''Democratas'' that the ''Nacionalistas'' had abandoned their platform, the ''Nacionalistas'' triumphed in the election of July 13, 1931.{{sfn|Hutchinson|1971|p=169}} In the election, Roxas was reelected and returned to his position as speaker of Philippine House of Representatives.{{sfn|Hutchinson|1971|p=169}} In September 1931, Japan seized the [[Manchuria]] region of [[China]].{{sfn|Hutchinson|1971|p=169}} After the [[Mukden Incident]], the leaders of both the [[United States Army|U.S. Army]] and [[United States Navy|U.S. Navy]] started to argue in Washington that the Philippines occupied a strategical position in [[Asia]], as naval and air bases located in the Philippines would allow any power that controlled them to dominate the [[South China Sea]], the key sea that linked the markets of [[Southeast Asia]] to China.{{sfn|Hutchinson|1971|p=169}} The prevailing opinion within the U.S. military was that the United States needed its Philippine bases to deter Japan from trying to seize control of all of East Asia.{{sfn|Hutchinson|1971|p=169}}

In 1933, Roxas and Osmeña flew to Washington to negotiate Filipino independence from the United States.{{sfn|Salamanca|1989|p=308}} The Americans agreed to grant the Filipinos independence, but only on the condition that the United States be allowed to retain military bases in the Philippines, a condition that led for the act to be rejected by the Philippine Congress.{{sfn|Salamanca|1989|p=308}} Quezon was late to state that the allowing of the United States to retain its bases in the Philippines would make Filipino independence no different from the independence of the Japanese sham state of [[Manchukuo]].{{sfn|Salamanca|1989|p=307}}

===Senate===
[[File:Embassy of Gabon, Washington, D.C.jpg|thumb|left|Roxas's former diplomatic residence in [[Washington, D.C.]]]]
After amendments to the [[Constitution of the Philippines|1935 Philippine Constitution]] were approved in 1941, Roxas was elected to the [[Senate of the Philippines|Philippine Senate]], but was unable to serve until 1945 because of the outbreak of [[World War II]]. The United States was scheduled to grant the Philippines independence in 1945 while Japan started to make claims for a [[Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere]] from 1940 onward. In common with other members of the Filipino elite, Roxas started to cultivate ties with Japan as it was unclear whatever the Philippines would remain in the American sphere of influence after independence or fall into the Japanese sphere of influence.{{sfn|Kerr|1974|p=12}} However, as the United States was planning on granting independence, ending more than 400 years of foreign rule, Filipino public opinion was hostile to the idea of the Philippines joining the Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere.{{sfn|Kerr|1974|p=12}}

Having enrolled prior to [[World War II]] as an officer in the reserves, Roxas was made liaison officer between the [[Commonwealth of the Philippines|Commonwealth government]] and the [[United States Army Forces in the Far East|USAFFE]] headquarters of General [[Douglas MacArthur]]. On December 7, 1941, Japan went to war against the United States, bombing the U.S. naval base in [[Pearl Harbor]], Hawaii, while also bombing American bases in the Philippines.{{sfn|Buhite|2008|p=41}} Shortly after, Japanese invasion forces landed on [[Luzon]], the largest and most populous of the islands of the Philippine archipelago.{{sfn|Buhite|2008|p=41}} MacArthur had claimed that the American–Filipino forces under his command would stop any Japanese invasion "on the beaches", but instead the Japanese forces marched on [[Manila]], the capital and largest city of the Philippines.{{sfn|Buhite|2008|p=41}} Roxas accompanied President Quezon to [[Corregidor Island|Corregidor]] where he supervised the destruction of Philippine currency to prevent its capture by the Japanese. When Quezon left Corregidor, Roxas went to Mindanao to direct the resistance there. It was prior to Quezon's departure that he was made executive secretary and designated as successor to the presidency in case Quezon or Vice President [[Sergio Osmeña]] were captured or killed. On January 3, 1942, President Quezon presented General MacArthur with a secret guaranty of $500,000.{{sfn|Weinberg|2005|p=310}}<ref name="The Secret Payment">{{cite web |title=MacArthur – The Secret Payment |url=https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/americanexperience/features/macarthur-secret-payment/ |website=The American Experience |access-date=August 8, 2021}}</ref>  The payment was related to the Filipino concept of ''[[utang na loob]]'', where one offers a lavish gift in order to create a reciprocal obligation from the individual who receives the gift.<ref name="The Secret Payment"/> Through the payment was legal, it was questionable from an ethical perspective, and MacArthur always kept the payment secret, which did not become public knowledge until 1979.<ref name="The Secret Payment"/> Later that year, Quezon offered payment to General [[Dwight D. Eisenhower]], which he refused, saying that as a United States Army official, his first loyalty was to the United States, which made accepting such a payment as morally wrong in his viewpoint.<ref name="The Secret Payment"/> Roxas was one of the few people who did know about Quezon's gift to MacArthur.{{sfn|Weinberg|2005|p=863}}

Roxas was captured in April 1942 by the Japanese invasion forces. He became chief advisor to the collaborationist government of [[Jose P. Laurel]].{{sfn|Weinberg|2005|p=863}}  The American journalist Richard Rovere described Roxas as typical of the Filipino ''hacendado'' class (the wealthy owners of the ''hacienda'' estates) who sought to opportunistically ingratiate themselves with whatever power ruled the Philippines.{{sfn|Rovere|1992|p=84}} An additional reason for the ''hacendados'' to support the Japanese occupation was that the main resistance group, the ''Hukbong Bayan Laban sa Hapon '' (People's Army against the Japanese), better known as the Huks, was a Communist movement.{{sfn|Pike|2010|pp=171–172}} Besides for opposing the Japanese, the Huks promised land reform, by breaking up the ''haciendas'', which caused the ''hacendados'' as a group to support the Japanese.{{sfn|Pike|2010|p=171}} The Manila chapter of the fascist Falange party had a membership of about 10,000 people, including members of the most prominent ''hacendado'' families such as the Ayalas, Zobels, Elizaldes and Sorianos.{{sfn|Pike|2010|p=171}} By 1945, the Huks had over 70,000 guerrillas in action, making them into easily the largest resistance group in the Philippines.{{sfn|Pike|2010|p=172}} The American historian Russell Buhite wrote: "Roxas was the Philippine equivalent of the fabled French statesman Charles Maurice de Tallyrand who was able to blend with the wind, able to work with authority wherever he found it".{{sfn|Buhite|2008|p=63}} The American historian Richard Bernstein stated: "If Japan had won the war...the top man in the Philippines today would probably have been Manuel Roxas".{{sfn|Rovere|1992|p=84}} 

During Japanese occupation, Roxas provided intelligence to General MacArthur and the American forces via the intelligence-gathering apparatus and efforts of [[Chick Parsons]]. Disguised as a Catholic priest, the bearded, tanned Parsons would visit Roxas even while the latter was effectively under house arrest, and privately "receive confession" from the Filipino statesman regarding the disposition of the Japanese forces, the collaborationist government, and various matters of state. Roxas also passed on information from Malacañang to the Fil-Am guerrilla movement through Ramona Snyder, the lover of guerrilla [[Edwin Ramsey]].<ref name="foo">{{cite book|last1=Eisner|first1=Peter|title=# T# MacArthur's Spies: The Soldier, the Singer, and the Spymaster Who Defied the Japanese in World War II|url=https://www.amazon.com/MacArthurs-Spies-Soldier-Spymaster-Japanese-ebook/dp/B01L8C4W8O/ref=sr_1_1?crid=33WGO13V82YV9&keywords=MacArthur%27s+Spies&qid=1684947579&s=books&sprefix=macarthur%27s+spies%2Cstripbooks%2C147&sr=1-1|accessdate=May 24, 2023|year=2014|publisher=Penguin|isbn=978-0525429654}}</ref> 

On October 20, 1943, the head of the Japanese military police, Akira Nagahama, surprised President Laurel in Malacañang and demanded the arrest of Roxas, whose office was a short distance away. Laurel replied, "You can go and get Roxas, but you'll have to kill me first."<ref>{{cite book|last1=Friend|first1=Theodore|title=# The Blue-Eyed Enemy: Japan against the West in Java and Luzon, 1942–1945 (Princeton Legacy Library, 908)|year=2014|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=978-0691602776}}</ref>

Control of the rice supplies and pricing was power politics in Manila. President Laurel and Roxas, as chief of the Government Rice Procurement Authority, secretly blocked Japanese access to the rice stores controlled by the agency—they wanted to project that the largest possible supply of the staple food would be available to the civilian population at the lowest possible price. They managed the system successfully. But when the Japanese occupiers were forced to use their own procurement methods outside of the Laurel government, short supply and high demand drove the prices up for everyone.<ref name="foo" />

Eventually as the war progressed, Japan managed to divert most of the rice harvest to feed the Japanese forces in Southeast Asia.{{sfn|Shafer|1988|p=212}} The ruthless policies of confiscating rice harvests pushed many of the Filipino peasantry to the brink of starvation and made Roxas into one of the most hated men in the Philippines.{{sfn|Shafer|1988|p=212}} 

Roxas served in the Laurel government until April 1945, when he surrendered to American forces at Baguio.{{sfn|Rovere|1992|p=83}} After his capture, MacArthur publicized Roxas' contributions to the resistance movement.{{sfn|Weinberg|2005|pp=863–864}} MacArthur may have been blackmailed by Roxas, who threatened to reveal the guaranty he accepted in 1942.{{sfn|Weinberg|2005|p=863}} This was dangerous for The General, as MacArthur had ambitions to run as the candidate of the [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican Party]] for the [[1944 United States presidential election]].{{sfn|Buhite|2008|p=83}} MacArthur's political ambitions were an open secret at the time. In early 1944, letters between MacArthur and Congressman [[Albert C. Miller|Albert Miller]] were leaked to the press,{{sfn|Buhite|2008|p=57}} wherein MacArthur expressed his criticism of the policies of [[President of the United States|President]] [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]] and the [[New Deal]], and dropped hints that he would be willing to accept the Republican nomination for the [[1944 United States presidential election|presidential election]] to be held after the war.{{sfn|Buhite|2008|p=57}}

Shortly after his capture, Roxas told the Americans that he wanted the United States to keep its military bases in the Philippines after independence in 1946, and promised to use all of his influence to persuade the Filipino congress to accept independence on those terms.{{sfn|Salamanca|1989|p=310}} Buhite wrote that by pardoning Roxas, MacArthur "...undermined his ability to treat other collaborators more harshly".{{sfn|Buhite|2008|p=63}} Beyond his presidential ambitions, MacArthur had additional reasons to treat Roxas leniently. MacArthur believed that the men of the ''hacendado'' class, such as Roxas, were capable of providing the Philippines with competent leadership.{{sfn|Buhite|2008|p=63}} The general felt that whatever Roxas and the other ''hacendados'' had done during the Japanese occupation was irrelevant compared to the need to have the ''haendados'' continue as the dominant group as MacArthur believed that the Philippines would descend into anarchy without the leadership of the educated class which had been responsible for governance since the time of the Spanish.{{sfn|Buhite|2008|p=63}}

Osmeña was opposed to MacArthur's rehabilitation of Roxas, only to receive the reply that: "I have known General Roxas for over twenty years, and I know that he is no threat to our military security. Therefore we are not detaining here".{{sfn|Rovere|1992|p=83}} It has been reported that MacArthur disliked President Osmeña, whom he felt was an incompetent leader, and much preferred Roxas to be the country's next president.{{sfn|Buhite|2008|p=63}} The charismatic Roxas made for more appealing social company, which he used to his advantage in his dealings with The General.{{sfn|Buhite|2008|p=63}} Moreover, Osmeña had often opposed MacArthur before the war.{{sfn|Buhite|2008|p=63}} President Osmeña traveled to Washington in early 1945 to appeal for President Roosevelt's help against MacArthur, but he made tactless remarks in his meeting at the [[White House]], inspiring the American president to declare that MacArthur should be allowed to rule the Philippines whatever way he liked.{{sfn|Buhite|2008|p=63}} MacArthur announced in a speech that Roxas was "one of the prime factors in the guerilla movement" against the Japanese.{{sfn|Rovere|1992|p=83}} Aside from Roxas, MacArthur pardoned over 5,000 Filipino collaborators. Even though over 80% of the Philippine Army officers went over to the Japanese in 1942, their commissions were restated.{{sfn|Pike|2010|p=173}}

When the Congress of the Philippines re-convened in 1945, legislators elected in 1941 Roxas as [[President of the Senate of the Philippines|Senate president]].{{sfn|Shafer|1988|p=212}} Of all members of the [[1st Congress of the Commonwealth of the Philippines|1st Commonwealth Congress]], 8 out of 14 senators and 19 out of 67 representatives had collaborated with the Japanese during the occupation.{{sfn|Pike|2010|p=172}} In an attempt to undermine Osmeña's chances of winning the [[1946 Philippine presidential election]], MacArthur forced the Osmeña administration to make unpopular decisions while he groomed Roxas to run in the 1946 election.{{sfn|Buhite|2008|p=63}} On April 12, 1945, President Roosevelt died and his [[Vice President of the United States|vice-president]], [[Harry S. Truman|Harry S Truman]], succeeded him. Truman had little interest in the Philippines, as he had more pressing concerns to face in his first months of office.{{sfn|Buhite|2008|p=63}} When MacArthur left the Philippines for Japan to sign the armistice ending the war on August 30, 1945, the Philippines has been in a chaotic state, with the economy in tatters and the political status undecided. {{sfn|Buhite|2008|p=63}} When he took over the American occupation of Japan, MacArthur in turn lost his interest in the Philippines, only returning to Manila on July 4, 1946, to witness the declaration of Filipino independence before promptly returning to Tokyo.{{sfn|Buhite|2008|p=63}}

==Presidential election of 1946==
Prior to the [[1946 Philippine general election|Philippine national elections of 1946]], at the height of the last [[Commonwealth of the Philippines|Commonwealth]] elections, Senate President Roxas and his friends left the [[Nacionalista Party]] and formed the [[Liberal Party (Philippines)|Liberal Party]].<ref name="Melted" >{{cite web|url=http://www.rappler.com/newsbreak/inside-track/158997-liberal-party-anniversary|title='Melted?' Liberal Party meets for 71st anniversary|newspaper=[[Rappler]]|date=January 21, 2017|access-date=April 19, 2017}}</ref>{{failed verification|date=April 2023}} Roxas became their candidate for president and [[Elpidio Quirino]] for vice-president. The Nacionalistas, on the other hand, had Osmeña for president and Senator [[Eulogio Rodriguez]] for vice-president. Roxas had the staunch support of General MacArthur.{{sfn|Weinberg|2005|p=864}} The American military government strongly favored Roxas during the election, regarding him as the Filipino politician most likely to allow the American bases to continue in the Philippines after independence.{{sfn|Pike|2010|p=172}} The British historian Francis Pike wrote that Roxas "effectively brought" the 1946 election, helped by the fact that he owned the largest newspaper empire in the Philippines.{{sfn|Pike|2010|p=172}} The Roxas newspapers election coverage were essentially campaign ads for the Roxas campaign.{{sfn|Pike|2010|p=172}} Osmeña refused to campaign, saying that the Filipino people knew of his reputation. On April 23, 1946, Roxas won 54% of the vote, and the Liberal Party won a majority in the legislature.<ref>{{cite video|year=1946|title=Video: Air Freight by Parachute etc. (1946)|url=https://archive.org/details/gov.archives.arc.39113|publisher=[[Universal Newsreel]]|access-date=February 20, 2012}}</ref>

== Presidency (1946–1948) ==
{{See also|List of executive orders by Manuel Roxas}}
{{Infobox President styles
|name = Manuel Roxas
|image = [[File:Seal_of_the_President_of_the_Philippines_1947-1951.svg|100px]]
|dipstyle = [[His Excellency]]
|offstyle = Your Excellency
|altstyle = Mr. President
}}
===Administration and cabinet===
{{Main|List of cabinets of the Philippines#Manuel Roxas (1946–1948)}}

===Last president of the Commonwealth===
On May 28, 1946, prior to his inauguration, president-elect Roxas, accompanied by [[High Commissioner to the Philippines|United States High Commissioner]] [[Paul V. McNutt]], left for the United States. During his U.S. visit, Roxas came out clearly for the United States to maintain its bases after independence, saying in a speech: "We will welcome the existence of your naval, air and army bases on such of our soil as it is mutually agreeable for the common protection of the United States and the Philippines, and will co-operate in the defense and security of those bases insofar as it is within our power to do so".{{sfn|Salamanca|1989|p=310}} After the experience of the Japanese occupation, Filipino public opinion was no longer against the presence of American bases after independence in quite the same way as before 1941.{{sfn|Salamanca|1989|p=308}} However, the U.S. government was apparently not aware of the change in public opinion, and favored Roxas as the man best able to allow the United States to keep its bases after independence.

On May 10, 1946, a draft agreement was signed in Washington allowing the United States to keep its Filipino bases for 99 years after independence.{{sfn|Salamanca|1989|p=311}} Roxas was willing to sign the agreement, but demanded that the number of American bases be reduced and complained that the sweeping immunity from Filipino law enjoyed by American military personnel envisioned in the agreement would not be popular with Filipino public opinion.{{sfn|Salamanca|1989|p=312}} He also made it clear that he was more comfortable with the Americans mostly having naval and air bases in the Philippines, and wanted the number of U.S. Army bases kept to the minimum.{{sfn|Salamanca|1989|p=312}} Some aspects of the Roxas desiderata were incorporated in the final agreement as the Americans agreed to reduce the number of bases in the Philippines after independence.{{sfn|Salamanca|1989|p=312}} Roxas's argument against the U.S. Army having bases were also incorporated in the agreement, through the fact that [[the Pentagon]] saw the Philippines primarily as a place to project power into Asia led to most of the American bases being naval and air bases.{{sfn|Salamanca|1989|p=312}} Furthermore, as long the Americans dominated the waters and air spaces around the Philippines, another invasion was unlikely. However, the Americans refused to give make concessions on the immunity issue, being adamant that American military personnel enjoy immunity from Filipino law after independence.{{sfn|Salamanca|1989|pp=312–313}}
[[File:Roxas-w960.jpg|thumb|President Manuel Roxas Official Portrait in Malacañang Palace]]
On May 28, 1946, Roxas was inaugurated as the last president of the Commonwealth of the Philippines. The inaugural ceremonies were held in the ruins of the Legislative Building (now part of the [[National Museum of the Philippines]]) and were witnessed by about 200,000 people. In his address, he outlined the main policies of his administration, mainly: closer ties with the United States; adherence to the newly created [[United Nations]]; national reconstruction; relief for the masses; social justice for the working class; the maintenance of peace and order; the preservation of individual rights and liberties of the citizenry; and honesty and efficiency of government.

On June 3, 1946, Roxas appeared for the first time before a [[joint session]] of Congress to deliver his first [[State of the Nation Address (Philippines)|State of the Nation Address]]. Among other things, he told the members of the Congress the grave problems and difficulties the Philippines face and reported on his special trip to the United States to discuss the approval for independence.<ref>''[[Official Gazette (Philippines)|Official Gazette]]'' (Manila, May 1946) vol. 42 no. 5, pp. 1151–1165</ref>

On June 21, Roxas reappeared in front of another joint session of Congress and urged the acceptance of two laws passed by the [[Congress of the United States]] on April 30, 1946—the [[Tydings–McDuffie Act]], of Philippine Rehabilitation Act, and the [[Bell Trade Act]] or Philippine Trade Act.<ref>''[[Official Gazette (Philippines)|Official Gazette]]'', July 1946, vol. 42 no. 7, pp. 1625–1628</ref> Both recommendations were accepted by the Congress. Under the Bell Trade Act, the goods from the Philippines were granted tariff-free access to the American market, achieving one of Roxas's key aims; in exchange, he accepted pegging the [[Philippine peso]] to the U.S. dollar and American corporations were granted parity rights when it came to exploiting the minerals and forests of the Philippines.{{sfn|Pike|2010|p=174}} In exchange for accepting the Bell Trade Act, the U.S. Congress voted for some $2 billion in aid to the Philippines.{{sfn|Pike|2010|p=174}} Though the $2 billion was intended to assist with the reconstruction of the war-devastated nation, the vast majority of the money was stolen by Roxas and his corrupt friends.{{sfn|Pike|2010|p=174}} The American journalist Robert Shaplen noted after a visit to Manila: "It may well be that in no other city in the world was there so much graft and corruption and conniving after the war".{{sfn|Pike|2010|p=174}}

In the congressional elections, the Huks joined forces with socialists and peasant unions to form a new party, the Democratic Alliance. The party won six seats in Congress on a platform of punishing collaborators, land reform and opposing the Bell Trade Act.{{sfn|Pike|2010|p=173}} Among the Huk leaders elected to Congress was the party's leader [[Luis Taruc]]. In what was described as "a monstrous abrogation of democratic procedure", Roxas expelled all members of Congress from the Democratic Alliance, claiming that they been elected illegally, and replaced them with his own bets.{{sfn|Pike|2010|p=173}} Roxas's expulsion of the Democratic Alliance from Congress was the beginning of a nation-wide purge of those who served in the Huk resistance against the Japanese as arrests and murders followed. Those who survived fled to the jungle and formed the ''Hukbong Mapagpalaya ng Bayan'' (the People's Revolutionary Army).".{{sfn|Pike|2010|p=173}}

===First president of the Third Republic (1946–1948)===
[[File:1946-07-15 Philippines Independence Proclaimed.ogv|thumb|left|250px|Short American [[newsreel]] of Philippine independence ceremonies on July 4, 1946, with brief footage of Roxas taking the oath of office as president.]]
[[File:Manuelroxasinaguration.jpg|thumb|260px|Roxas taking the oath as the first president of the Third Republic on July 4, 1946, at the Independence Grandstand (now [[Quirino Grandstand]]), [[Manila]].]]

Roxas served as the president of the Commonwealth of the Philippines in a brief period, from May 28, 1946, to July 4, 1946, during which time Roxas helped prepare the groundwork for an independent Philippines. He was inugurated at the ruins of [[National Museum of Fine Arts (Manila)|Legislative Building]] in [[Manila]], which was ruined during the [[World War II]].<ref>{{cite speech |url=https://www.officialgazette.gov.ph/1946/05/28/inaugural-address-of-president-roxas-may-28-1946/ |title=Inaugural Speech of His Excellency Manuel Roxas As President of the Commonwealth of the Philippines |date=May 28, 1946 |accessdate=June 2, 2023 |publisher=[[Official Gazette of the Republic of the Philippines]]}}</ref> [[Chief Justice of the Philippines|Chief Justice]] [[Manuel Moran]] administered the oath of office.

Roxas's term as the president of the Commonwealth ended on the morning of July 4, 1946, when the [[Third Republic of the Philippines]] was inaugurated and independence from the United States proclaimed. The occasion, attended by some 300,000 people, was marked by the simultaneous lowering of the [[Flag of the United States|U.S. flag]] and raising of the [[Flag of the Philippines|Philippine national flag]], a [[21-gun salute]], and the pealing of church bells. Roxas then took the oath of office as the first president of the new republic before [[Supreme Court of the Philippines|Supreme Court]] [[Chief Justice of the Philippines|Chief Justice]] [[Manuel Moran]].<ref>{{cite speech |url=https://www.officialgazette.gov.ph/1946/07/04/inaugural-address-of-president-roxas-on-the-independence-of-the-philippines/ |title=Inaugural Address of His Excellency Manuel Roxas President of the Philippines On the Independence of the Philippines |publisher=[[Official Gazette of the Republic of the Philippines]] |date=July 4, 1946 |accessdate=June 2, 2023}}</ref>

The inaugural ceremonies took place at [[Luneta Park]] in the [[City of Manila]]. On the Grandstand alone were around 3,000 dignitaries and guests, consisting of President Roxas, Vice President Quirino, their respective parties, and the Cabinet; first [[Embassy of the United States|United States Ambassador to the Philippines]] Paul McNutt; General [[Douglas MacArthur]] (coming from [[Tokyo]]); [[United States Postmaster General]] [[Robert E. Hannegan]]; a delegation from the U.S. Congress led by [[State of Maryland|Maryland]] Senator [[Millard Tydings]] (author of the Tydings–McDuffie Act) and [[State of Missouri|Missouri]] Representative [[C. Jasper Bell]] (author of the Bell Trade Act); and former [[Governor-General of the Philippines|Civil Governor-General]] [[Francis Burton Harrison]].

===Domestic policies===

====Economy====
{{Infobox
|title       = Economy of the Philippines under<br />President Manuel Roxas<br />1946–1948
|abovestyle  = background: lightblue;
|headerstyle = background: lightblue;
|labelstyle  = font-weight: normal;
|header1     = Population
|label2      = '''1948'''
|data2       = <math>\approx</math> 19.23&nbsp;million
|header3     = Gross Domestic Product (1985 constant prices)
|label4      = '''1947'''
|data4       = {{increase}} [[Philippine peso|Php]] 85,269 million
|label6      = '''Growth rate, 1947–48'''
|data6       = 39.5%
|header7     = Per capita income (1985 constant prices)
|label8      = '''1947'''
|data8       = {{increase}} [[Philippine peso|Php]] 4,434
|header10    = Total exports
|label11     = '''1947'''
|data11      = {{increase}} [[Philippine peso|Php]] 24, 824 million
|header13    = [[Exchange rate]]s
|data14      = 1 US$ = [[Philippine peso|Php]] 2.00<br /> 1 [[Philippine peso|Php]] = US$ 0.50
|data15      = ''Sources'': [https://web.archive.org/web/20110714131730/http://filipinopresidency.multiply.com/photos/album/26#photo=15 Philippine Presidency Project]<br />{{cite book|last1=Malaya|first1=Jonathan|first2=Eduardo |last2=Malaya |title=So Help Us God... The Inaugurals of the Presidents of the Philippines|publisher=Anvil Publishing, Inc.}}
}}

No sooner had the fanfare of the [[independence]] festivities ended that the government and the people quickly put all hands to work in the tasks of rescuing the country from its dire economic straits. Reputed to be the most bombed and destroyed country in the world, the Philippines was in a sorry mess. Only [[Stalingrad]] and [[Warsaw]], for instance, could compare with [[Manila]] in point of destruction. All over the country more than a million people were unaccounted for. The war casualties as such could very well reach the two million mark. Conservative estimates had it that the [[Philippines]] had lost about two thirds of her material wealth.<ref name="autogenerated1961">Molina, Antonio. ''The Philippines: Through the centuries''. Manila: University of Santo Tomas Cooperative, 1961. Print.</ref> In 1946, the Filipino gross domestic produce was down 38.7% from where it had been in 1937.{{sfn|Pike|2010|p=175}}

The country was facing near bankruptcy.<ref name="autogenerated1961"/> There was no national economy, no export trade. Indeed, production for exports had not been restored. On the other hand, imports were to reach the amount of three million dollars. There was need of immediate aid from the [[United Nations Relief and Rehabilitation Administration]]. Something along this line was obtained. Again, loans from the United States, as well as some increase in the national revenues, were to help the new Republic.<ref name="autogenerated1961"/>

Among the main remedies proposed was the establishment of the Philippine Rehabilitation Finance Corporation. This entity would be responsible for the construction of twelve thousand houses and for the grant of easy-term loans in the amount of P177,000,000. Another proposal was the creation of the [[Central Bank of the Philippines]] to help stabilize the Philippine dollar reserves and coordinate and the nations banking activities gearing them to the economic progress.

Concentrating on the sugar industry,  Roxas would exert such efforts as to succeed in increasing production from 13,000 tons at the time of the Philippine liberation to an all-high of one million tons.<ref name="autogenerated1961"/>

====Reconstruction after the war====
The war had burned cities and towns, ruined farms and factories, blasted roads and bridges, shattered industries and commerce, massacred thousands of civilians, and paralyzed the educational system, where 80% of the school buildings, their equipment, laboratories and furniture were destroyed.<ref>Gallego, Manuel V. "The Technique of Japanese Cultural Invasion." ''Philippine Journal of Education.'' Manila, November 1946, p. 94</ref> Numberless books, invaluable documents and works of art, irreplaceable historical relics and family [[heirloom]]s, hundreds of churches and temples were burned. The reconstruction of the damaged school buildings alone cost more than ₱126,000,000,000. Pike noted that the Japanese as part of their efforts of "liberation" from American imperialism by bringing the Philippines into the Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere "...had smashed industrial buildings, banks, government offices and hotels. Infrastructure including ports had been sabotaged or destroyed in the heavy fighting for Manila".{{sfn|Pike|2010|p=175}}

The new republic began to function on an annual deficit of over P200,000,000 with little prospect of a balanced budget for some years to come.<ref>Message of His Excellency Manuel Roxas, President of the Philippines to the Second Congress delivered on June 3, 1946. Manila. Bureau of Printing, 1946, p. 6</ref> [[Manila]] and other cities then were infested with criminal gangs which used techniques of American [[gangster]]s in some activities—bank [[Robbery|holdups]], [[kidnapping]] and [[burglar]]ies. In rural regions, especially the provinces of [[Central Luzon]] and the [[Southern Tagalog]] regions, the brigands terrorized towns and [[barrio]]s.

====Agrarian reform====
{{See also|Land reform in the Philippines}}

In 1946, shortly after his induction to presidency, Roxas proclaimed the Rice Share Tenancy Act of 1933 effective throughout the country.<ref name="autogenerated2">Manapat, Carlos, et al.'' Economics, Taxation, and Agrarian Reform''. Quezon City: C&E Pub., 2010. Print.</ref> However, problems of [[land tenure]] continued. In fact, these became worse in certain areas.<ref name="autogenerated2"/> Among the remedial measures enacted was Republic Act No. 34, likewise known as the Tenant Act, which provided for a 70–30 sharing arrangements and regulated share-tenancy contracts.<ref name="autogenerated2"/> It was passed to resolve the ongoing peasant unrest in Central Luzon.<ref name="autogenerated2"/>

====Amnesty Proclamation====
President Roxas, on January 28, 1948, granted full amnesty to all Philippine collaborators, many of whom were on trial or awaiting to be tried, particularly former President [[José P. Laurel]] (1943–1945).<ref name="autogenerated1961"/> The Amnesty Proclamation did not apply to those collaborators, who were charged with the commission of common crimes, such as murder, rape, and arson. The presidential decision did much to heal a standing wound that somehow threatened to divide the people's sentiments.<ref name="autogenerated1961"/> It was a much-called for measure to bring about a closer unity in the trying times when such was most needed for the progress of the nation.<ref name="autogenerated1961"/>

====Civil war====
After persecuting the ''[[HUKBALAHAP|Hukbóng Bayan Laban sa Hapón]]'', Roxas opened peace talks with the Huks and invited a delegation of Huk leaders led by [[Juan Feleo]] to come to Manila in August 1946.{{sfn|Pike|2010|p=175}} While returning to their jungle bases, Felco and the other Huk leaders were ambushed by police forces, with Felco's head was found floating in the Pampanga River.{{sfn|Pike|2010|p=175}} The ambush was intended to cripple the Huks, but instead led to a civil war as the police and the army rapidly lost control of much of Luzon to the Huks.{{sfn|Pike|2010|p=175}} Strongly opposed to the guerrilla movement ''[[HUKBALAHAP|Hukbó ng Bayan Laban sa Hapón]]'' (Nation's Army Against the Japanese, also called "the Huks"), Roxas issued a proclamation outlawing the Huk movement on March 6, 1948.<ref name="autogenerated1961"/> At the same time, Roxas pardoned the Filipinos who had collaborated with the Japanese.{{sfn|Pike|2010|p=175}} The pardon of the collaborators lent some substance to the charge by the Huks that his administration was a continuation of the wartime collaborationist puppet government.

The [[Central Intelligence Agency]] in a report noted that the Philippines was dominated by "an irresponsible ruling class which exercises economic and political power almost exclusively in its own interests".{{sfn|Pike|2010|p=175}} Secretary of State [[Dean Acheson]] complained that the Philippines was one of the most corrupt nations in Asia as he commented with some understatement "much of the aid to the Philippines has not been used as wisely as we wish it had".{{sfn|Pike|2010|p=175}} Acheson wanted to cease aid to the Philippines until reforms were mounted to crack down on corruption, but was blocked by John Melby, the head of the Filipino desk at the [[United States Department of State|U.S. State Department]], who warned that to cut off aid would mean handing over the Philippines to the Huks.{{sfn|Pike|2010|p=175}} U.S. officials throughout the late 1940s that Roxas was a corrupt leader whose policies openly favored the ''hacendado'' class and that unless reforms were made, it was inevitable that the Huks would win.{{sfn|Pike|2010|p=175}}

===Foreign policies===
====Treaty of General Relations====
{{See also|Treaty of Manila (1946)}}
On August 5, 1946, Congress ratified the Treaty of General Relations that had been entered into by and between the [[Republic of the Philippines]] and the United States on July 4, 1946.<ref name="autogenerated1961"/> Aside from withdrawing her sovereignty from the Philippines and recognizing her independence, the Treaty reserved for the United States some bases for the mutual protection of both countries; consented that the United States represent the Philippines in countries where the latter had not yet established diplomatic representation; made the Philippines assume all debts and obligations of the former government in the Philippines; and provided for the settlement of property rights of the citizens of both countries.<ref name="autogenerated1961"/>

====United States military bases====
[[File:ManuelRoxas Last.jpg|thumb|225px|One of the last pictures of President Manuel Roxas.]]
Although Roxas was successful in getting rehabilitation funds from the United States after independence, he was forced to concede military bases (23 of which were leased for 99 years), trade restriction for the Philippine citizens, and special privileges for U.S. property owners and investors.{{sfn|Pike|2010|p=174}} On March 21, 1947, the United States granted the Philippines some $17.7 million in military aid and another $25 million to assist with reconstruction.{{sfn|Pike|2010|p=174}} The Communist Huk rebellion led to fears in the United States that the Huks might come to power while the fact that the Kuomintang were clearly losing the Chinese civil war by this point led to the very real possibility that Chinese Communists might come to the power.{{sfn|Pike|2010|p=174}} In turn, there was much fear in Washington that a Communist China would grant the Soviet Union air and naval bases. The possibility of a Communist China vastly increased the geopolitical importance of the Philippines to the United States, which wanted to retain its air and naval bases in the Philippines to maintain control of the South China Sea.{{sfn|Pike|2010|p=174}} The Americans made it clear that they were prepared to pay "handsomely" for the right to keep their Filipino bases, which Roxas exploited.{{sfn|Pike|2010|p=174}}

====Parity Rights Amendment====
On March 11, 1947, Philippine voters, agreeing with Roxas, ratified in a nationwide [[plebiscite]] the "[[1947 Philippine Parity Rights plebiscite|parity amendment]]" to the [[1935 Constitution of the Philippines]], granting United States citizens the right to dispose of and utilize Philippine natural resources, or ''parity rights''.

====Turtle and Mangsee Islands====
{{See also|Philippine Turtle Islands#How the islands came under Philippine administration}}
On September 19, 1946, the Republic of the Philippines notified the [[United Kingdom]] that it wished to take over the administration of the [[Turtle Islands, Tawi-Tawi|Turtle Islands]] and the [[Mangsee Islands]]. Pursuant to a supplemental international agreement, the transfer of administration became effective on October 16, 1947.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://treaties.fco.gov.uk/docs/fullnames/pdf/1951/TS0058%20(1951)%20CMD-8320%201948%2020%20APR,%20MANILA%3B%20NOTES%20BETWEEN%20GOV%20OF%20UK%20&%20PHILIPPINES%20REGARDING%20TRANSFER%20OF%20ADMINISTRATION%20OF%20TURTLE%20&%20MANGSEE%20ISLANDS.pdf |title=Exchange of Notes between the Government of the United Kingdom and the Government of the Republic of the Philippines regarding the transfer of the administration of the Turtle and Mangsee Islands to the Philippine Republic; Cmd 8320 |access-date=August 8, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180505194733/http://treaties.fco.gov.uk/docs/fullnames/pdf/1951/TS0058%20%281951%29%20CMD-8320%201948%2020%20APR%2C%20MANILA%3B%20NOTES%20BETWEEN%20GOV%20OF%20UK%20%26%20PHILIPPINES%20REGARDING%20TRANSFER%20OF%20ADMINISTRATION%20OF%20TURTLE%20%26%20MANGSEE%20ISLANDS.pdf |archive-date=May 5, 2018 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|first=Peter C.|last=Richards|url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=1301&dat=19471206&id=Sf5UAAAAIBAJ&pg=4610,725646&hl=en|title=New Flag Over Pacific Paradise|publisher=[[The Sydney Morning Herald]]|date=December 6, 1947|access-date=October 22, 2015}}</ref>

===Controversies===
His administration was marred by graft and corruption; moreover, the abuses of the provincial military police contributed to the rise of the left-wing (Huk) movement in the countryside. His heavy-handed attempts to crush the Huks led to widespread peasant disaffection.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Manuel Roxas {{!}} president of Philippines {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Manuel-Roxas-y-Acuna |access-date=2022-10-01 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}</ref>

The good record of the Roxas administration was marred by notable failures: the failure to curb graft and corruption in the government (as evidenced by the surplus war property scandal), the Chinese immigration scandal, the school supplies scandal and the failure to check and stop the communist [[Hukbalahap]] movement.{{citation needed|date=January 2022}}

===Assassination attempt===
The night before the plebiscite, Roxas narrowly escaped assassination by Julio Guillen, a disgruntled barber from [[Tondo, Manila]], who hurled a [[grenade]] at the platform on [[Plaza Miranda]] immediately after Roxas had addressed a rally.<ref>Guillen was arrested, tried by the court for attempted assassination, and was sentenced to die. On April 16, 1950, he was executed in an [[electric chair]] at [[Muntinlupa]].</ref>

==Death==
[[File:1224Death Place of Manuel Roxasfvf 03.JPG|thumb|right|230px|Historical marker on the death place of Roxas]]
[[File:Elpidio Quirino during Manuel Roxas wake.jpg|thumb|right|230px|Elpidio Quirino during the wake in [[Malacañang Palace]]]]

On April 15, 1948, President Roxas delivered a speech before the [[Thirteenth Air Force|United States Thirteenth Air Force]] at the Kelly Theater in [[Clark Air Base]], Pampanga. After the speech, he suffered dizziness and fatigue and was brought to the residence of Major General Eugene L. Eubank. That night, he suffered multiple heart attacks and died at 9:23 pm at the age of 56.

His body was brought to Manila the following day on a special train, reaching Malacañang at about 9:20 am. Sessions of Congress were suspended until after the burial which was set on Sunday, April 25, 1948. Vice President [[Elpidio Quirino]], who was on board a southern cruise at the time of Roxas's death, arrived in Manila on April 17. That morning, Quirino immediately went to Malacañang and took the oath of office as president in the Council of State Room. The new president then appointed a committee to take charge of the funeral arrangements for the late president and issued a proclamation declaring a period of national mourning from April 17 to May 17.

Roxas was buried at the Manila North Cemetery.

[[File:Roxas Tomb.jpg|thumb|center|400px|Tomb of Manuel Roxas in [[Manila North Cemetery]]]]

==Personal life==
Roxas married [[Trinidad de Leon-Roxas|Trinidad de Leon]] on April 14, 1921, in a quiet ceremony at the Chapel of Sibul Springs, [[San Miguel, Bulacan]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Nuyda |first=Doris |author-link= |date=1980|title=The beauty book : a history of Philippine beauty from 1908 to 1980 / by Doris G. Nuyda; with photographs by Pablo Reyes |url=https://www.elib.gov.ph/details.php?uid=3b61d44570b76df6b76baf017bf2c364 |location= |publisher=Mr. & Mrs. Publishing Company |page=1920 |isbn=}}
</ref> The couple had two children, Rosario "Ruby" and [[Gerardo Roxas|Gerardo]] (Gerry). Roxas also fathered three children with Juanita Muriedas McIlvain – Rosario "Charo" Roxas (mother of [[Margie Moran]]), Consuelo Roxas, and Manuel "Manny" Roxas, Jr.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://lifestyle.inquirer.net/228309/from-famous-mothers-to-accomplished-daughters-lessons-across-generations/|title=From famous mothers to accomplished daughters: Lessons across generations|date=2016-05-07|website=Inquirer Lifestyle|language=en-US|access-date=2022-10-03}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://lifestyle.abs-cbn.com/articles/1568/clans-of-empowered-women-in-metro-society/|title=Clans of Empowered Women in Metro Society|website=lifestyle.abs-cbn.com|access-date=2022-10-03}}</ref>

==Legacy==
On July 3, 1956, Roxas was posthumously awarded the [[Quezon Service Cross]]. The award was presented to his widow, Trinidad de Leon-Roxas, by Vice President [[Carlos P. Garcia]] on behalf of President [[Ramon Magsaysay]].<ref>{{Cite book|title=Official Gazette of the Republic of the Philippines Vol. 52 No. 7 (July 3, 1956)|year=1956|pages=cccv}}</ref> <ref>[https://nlpdl.nlp.gov.ph/OG01/1956/jul/16/bs/7 Official Month in Review] Official Gazette of the Republic of the Philippines. Retrieved 26 August 2024.</ref>

In his honor, various cities and municipalities in the Philippines have been renamed after him, including [[Roxas, Oriental Mindoro]] in (1948), the first town to be named as such; [[Roxas, Isabela]] (1948); [[President Roxas, Capiz]] (1949); [[Roxas, Capiz|Roxas City, Capiz]] (1951); [[Roxas, Palawan]] (1951); [[President Roxas, Cotabato]] (1967); and [[President Manuel A. Roxas, Zamboanga del Norte]] (1967). [[Roxas Boulevard|Dewey Boulevard]] in [[Metro Manila]] was renamed in his memory, and he is currently depicted on the [[Philippine one hundred-peso note|100]] [[Philippine peso]] bill.

<gallery mode="packed">
File:Phil2pisocomm.jpg|1992 2-Piso President Manuel Roxas Birth Centennial Commemorative Coin
File:Roxas Boulevard in Pasay City.jpg|[[Roxas Boulevard]] in [[Pasay]], named after the president
File:Roxas Monument in Roxas City.jpg|Statue of Manuel Roxas in [[Roxas City]]
MAR Monument and Historical Marker.jpg|Statue of Manuel Roxas in [[Ermita, Manila]]
</gallery>

{{clear}}

==Family and ancestry==
{{ahnentafel
|collapsed=yes |align=center
|ref = <ref>{{cite web|title=Manuel Acuña Roxas|url=http://www.geni.com/people/Manuel-Roxas/6000000010575534798|date=July 28, 2007|access-date=August 8, 2015}}</ref>{{self-published inline|date=February 2021}}
|boxstyle_1=background-color: #fcc;
|boxstyle_2=background-color: #fb9;
|boxstyle_3=background-color: #ffc;
|boxstyle_4=background-color: #bfc;
|1= Manuel Roxas
|2= [[Gerardo Roxas y Luis]]
|3= Rosario Acuña
|4= Antonio Roxas (II)
|5= 
|6= Eleuterio Acuña
|7= Ramona Villaruz
|8= Caetano Rojas
|9= 
|10= 
|11= 
|12=
|13=
|14= Paulino Villaruz
|15= Eugenia Andrada
}}

{{clear}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

===Bibliography===
*{{cite book |last1=Buhite |first1=Russell |title=Douglas MacArthur Statecraft and Stagecraft in America's East Asian Policy |date=2008 |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield |location=Lanham, Maryland |isbn=9780742544253}}
*{{cite book|last1=Hutchinson|first1=Joseph|chapter=Quezon's Role in Philippine Independence|pages=157–194|date=1971|title=Compadre Colonialism: Studies in the Philippines under American Rule|location=Ann Arbor|publisher=University of Michigan Press|editor-first=Norman G.|editor-last=Owen}}
*{{cite book |last1=Kerr |first1=George |title=Formosa: Licensed Revolution and the Home Rule Movement, 1895–1945 |date=1974 |publisher=University of Hawaii Press |location=Honolulu}}
*{{cite book |last1=Pike |first1=Francis |title=Empires at War A Short History of Modern Asia Since World War II |date=2010 |publisher=I.B. Tauris |location=London |isbn=9780857730299}}
*{{cite book |last1=Rovere |first1=Richard |title=General MacArthur and President Truman The Struggle for Control of American Foreign Policy |date=1992 |publisher=Transaction Publishers |location=Piscataway, New Jersey |isbn=9781412824392}}
*{{cite journal |last1=Salamanca|first1=Bonifacio |title=Quezon, Osmeña and Roxas and the American Military Presence in the Philippines |journal=Philippine Studies |date=Summer 1989 |volume=32 |issue=3 |pages=301–316}}
*{{cite book |last1=Shafer |first1=Michael |title=Deadly Paradigms The Failure of U.S. Counterinsurgency Policy |date=1988 |publisher=Princeton University Press |location=Princeton |isbn=9781400860586}}
*{{cite book |last1=Weinberg |first1=Gerhard |title=A World In Arms A Global History of World War Two |date=2005 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge |isbn=0521618266}}
* {{cite book | author=Zaide, Gregorio F. | title=Philippine History and Government|publisher=National Bookstore Printing Press |year=1984}}
* {{cite book|last=Zaide|first=Gregorio|title=Philippine Political and Cultural History: the Philippines since British Invasion|publisher=McCullough Printing Company|location=Manila, Philippines|year=1956|edition=1957 Revised}}

== External links ==
{{Wikisource author}}{{Commons}}
* [http://www.pangulo.ph The Philippine Presidency Project]
* [http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/phtoc.html A Country Study: Philippines]
* [http://www.depedmares.com Manuel A. Roxas Elementary School]

{{S-start-collapsible|title=Offices and distinctions}}
{{s-par|ph-lwr}}
{{s-bef
| before = Antonio Habana
}}
{{s-ttl
| title = Member of the [[House of Representatives of the Philippines|House of Representatives]] from [[Capiz's 1st congressional district|Capiz's 1st district]]
| years = 1922–1938
}}
{{s-aft
| after = Ramon Arnaldo
| as = [[National Assembly of the Philippines|Assemblyman]]
}}
|-
{{s-bef
| before = [[Sergio Osmeña]]
}}
{{s-ttl
| title = [[House of Representatives of the Philippines|Speaker of the House of Representatives]]
| years = 1922–1933
}}
{{s-aft
| after = [[Quintin Paredes]]
}}
|-
{{s-par|ph-upr}}
|-
{{s-vac|reason=Senate and House of Representatives merged into the unicameral [[National Assembly of the Philippines|National Assembly]]|last=[[Manuel L. Quezon]]}}
{{s-ttl
| title = [[Senate President of the Philippines|President of the Senate]]
| years = 1945–1946
}}
{{s-aft
| after = [[José Avelino]]
}}
|-
{{s-off}}
|-
{{s-bef
| before = Jose Hontiveros	
}}
{{s-ttl
| title = [[Governor of Capiz]]
| years = 1919–1922
}}
{{s-aft
| after =Rafael Acuña	
}}
|-
{{s-bef
| before = [[Antonio de las Alas]]
}}
{{s-ttl
| title = [[Secretary of Finance (Philippines)|Secretary of Finance]]
| years = 1938–1941
}}
{{s-aft
| after = Serafin Marabut
}}
|-
{{s-bef
| before = [[Jorge B. Vargas]]
}}
{{s-ttl
| title = [[Executive Secretary (Philippines)|Executive Secretary]]
| years = 1941–1942
}}
{{s-aft
| after = Arturo Rotor
}}
|-
{{s-bef
| before = [[Sergio Osmeña]]
}}
{{s-ttl
| title = [[President of the Philippines]]
| years = 1946–1948
}}
{{s-aft
| after = [[Elpidio Quirino]]
}}
|-
{{s-ppo}}
{{s-new|party
}}
{{s-ttl
| title = President of the [[Liberal Party (Philippines)|Liberal Party]]
| years = 1946–1948
}}
{{s-aft
| after = [[José Avelino]]
}}
|-
{{s-new|first
}}
{{s-ttl
| title = [[Liberal Party (Philippines)|Liberal Party]] nominee for President of the Philippines
| years = [[1946 Philippine presidential election|1946]]
}}
{{s-aft
| after = [[Elpidio Quirino]]<br />[[José Yulo]]
}}
{{S-end}}

{{Navboxes
|title=Articles related to Manuel Roxas
|list1=
{{Philippine Presidents}}
{{Philippine Senate Presidents}}
{{HouseSpeakerPH}}
{{Presidential election in the Philippines, 1946}}
{{Roxas cabinet}}
}}
{{QSC Recipients}}
{{Authority control}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=February 2022}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Roxas, Manuel}}
[[Category:Manuel Roxas| ]]
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