View source for Lithium–sulfur battery

{{short description|Type of rechargeable battery}}
{{Infobox battery
|image=Li-S battery EN.png
|caption=Working principle of lithium-sulfur battery and "shuttle" effect
|EtoW=450&nbsp;Wh/kg<ref name="oxisapril2021">
{{cite web 
|url=http://www.panasonic.com/industrial/batteries-oem/oem/lithium-ion.aspx 
|title=OXIS ENERGY SET TO MAKE SOLID-STATE LITHIUM-SULFUR CELL TECHNOLOGY A REALITY 
|date=20 April 2021
|access-date=7 June 2021 
|type=pdf
}}</ref>
|EtoS= 550&nbsp;Wh/L<ref name="oxisapril2021"/>
|PtoW=
|CtoDE= C/5 nominal
|EtoCP=
|SDR=
|NomV=Cell [[volt]]age varies nonlinearly in the range 2.5–1.7{{nbsp}}V during discharge; batteries often packaged for 3{{nbsp}}V
|TD=
|CD=In question<!--The references from the abstract that convey the cycle durability are from two decades ago and out of date "poor<ref>Kim, J.-Y., ''et al.'' (2003) [http://www.electrochem.org/dl/ma/204/pdfs/0362.PDF "Oxalate compounds as an additive for rechargeable Li/S battery system"] Abs. 362, ''204th Meeting, The Electrochemical Society'' (poster)</ref> "-->
}}

The '''lithium–sulfur battery''' (Li–S battery) is a type of [[rechargeable battery]]. It is notable for its high [[specific energy]].<ref name=":3">{{cite journal | last1 = Zhang | first1 = Sheng S | year = 2013 | title = Liquid electrolyte lithium/sulfur battery: Fundamental chemistry, problems, and solutions | journal = Journal of Power Sources | volume = 231 | pages = 153–162 | doi = 10.1016/j.jpowsour.2012.12.102 }}</ref> The low [[atomic weight]] of [[lithium]] and moderate atomic weight of [[sulfur]] means that Li–S batteries are relatively light (about the density of water). They were used on the longest and highest-altitude unmanned [[solar-powered]] aeroplane flight (at the time) by [[Airbus Zephyr|Zephyr 6]] in August 2008.<ref>Amos, J. (24 August 2008) [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/7577493.stm "Solar plane makes record flight"] ''BBC News''</ref>

Lithium–sulfur batteries may displace [[lithium-ion]] cells because of their higher energy density and reduced cost. This is due to two factors. First the use of [[sulfur]] instead of a less energy dense and more expensive substances such as cobalt and/or iron compounds found in [[Lithium-ion battery|lithium-ion batteries]].<ref name=":3" /><ref name=":4">{{cite journal | last1 = Manthiram | first1 = Arumugam | last2 = Fu | first2 = Yongzhu | last3 = Su | first3 = Yu-Sheng | year = 2013 | title = Challenges and Prospects of Lithium–Sulfur Batteries | url = http://pdf-s3.xuebalib.com:1262/3p53gUMPTEVW.pdf | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20200103201726/http://pdf-s3.xuebalib.com:1262/3p53gUMPTEVW.pdf | archive-date = 2020-01-03 | journal = Acc. Chem. Res. | volume = 46 | issue = 5 | pages = 1125–1134 | doi = 10.1021/ar300179v | pmid = 23095063 }}</ref> Secondly, the use of metallic lithium instead of intercalating lithium ions allows for much higher energy density, as less substances are needed to hold "lithium" and lithium is directly oxidized.<ref name=":3" /><ref name=":4" /><ref name="oxisapril2021" /> Li–S batteries offer specific energies on the order of 550{{nbsp}}[[Watt hour|Wh]]/[[kilogram|kg]],<ref name="oxisapril2021"/> while lithium-ion batteries are in the range of 150{{ndash}}260{{nbsp}}Wh/kg.<ref  name="osti1561559">{{cite report
|title=Automotive Li-Ion Batteries: Current Status and Future Perspectives
|url=https://www.osti.gov/servlets/purl/1561559
|date=2019-01-01
|access-date=15 March 2021
|page=26
|publisher=U.S. Department Of Energy
}}</ref>

Li–S batteries with up to 1,500 charge and discharge cycles were demonstrated in 2017,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://oxisenergy.com/technology/|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170628172832/https://oxisenergy.com/technology/|archive-date=28 June 2017 |title=OXIS Energy's Lithium-Sulfur Battery Technology}} In 2017: "can be cycled approximately 1500 times ... In the next 2 years, we expect this to reach 2500 cycles". In 2021: "Within the next two years we aim to double the current cycle life to achieve upwards of 500 cycles"</ref> but cycle life tests at commercial scale and with lean electrolyte have not been completed. As of early 2021, none were commercially available.

Issues that have slowed acceptance include the polysulfide "shuttle" effect that is responsible for the progressive leakage of active material from the cathode, resulting in too few recharge cycles.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Diao|first1=Yan|last2=Xie|first2=Kai|last3=Xiong|first3=Shizhao|last4=Hong|first4=Xiaobin|date=August 2013|title=Shuttle phenomenon – The irreversible oxidation mechanism of sulfur active material in Li–S battery|journal=Journal of Power Sources|language=en|volume=235|pages=181–186|doi=10.1016/j.jpowsour.2013.01.132}}</ref> Also, sulfur cathodes have low conductivity, requiring extra mass for a conducting agent in order to exploit the contribution of active mass to the capacity.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Eftekhari | first1 = Ali | year = 2017 | title = The rise of lithium–selenium batteries | journal = Sustainable Energy & Fuels | volume = 1 | pages = 14–29 | doi = 10.1039/C6SE00094K }}</ref> Volume expansion of the sulfur cathode during S to Li{{sub|2}}S conversion and the large amount of electrolyte needed are also issues. In the early 2000s, however, scientists began to make progress creating high-stability sulfurized-carbon cathodes<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wang |first1=J |author2=Yang, J |author3=Xie, J |author4=Xu, N |title=A novel conductive polymer–sulfur composite cathode material for rechargeable lithium batteries |journal=Advanced Materials |date=2002 |volume=14 |issue=13–14 |pages=963–965 |doi=10.1002/1521-4095(20020705)14:13/14<963::AID-ADMA963>3.0.CO;2-P}}</ref> and by 2020, scientists at Rice University had demonstrated batteries based on sulfurized carbon cathodes that retained >70% of their capacity after 1000 cycles.<ref name="cycle">{{cite book |last1=Salvatierra |first1=Rodrigo V |author2=James, Dustin K |author3=Tour, James M |editor1-last=Gupta |editor1-first=Ram K |title=Lithium-Sulfur Batteries: Materials, Challenges and Applications |date=2022 |publisher=Elsevier |location=Amsterdam |isbn=978-0-323-91934-0 |pages=241–270}}</ref> By 2023, [[Zeta Energy]] a Texas-based startup announced that multiple national laboratories had independently verified that its lithium-sulfur batteries based on sulfurized-carbon cathodes were polysulfide shuttle free.<ref>{{cite news |title=Zeta Energy Receives Third-Party Verification that its Lithium-Sulfur Battery is Polysulfide Free |url=https://www.prnewswire.com/news-releases/zeta-energy-receives-third-party-verification-that-its-lithium-sulfur-battery-is-polysulfide-free-301811724.html |access-date=September 3, 2023 |publisher=PR Newswire |date=May 1, 2023}}</ref>

The competitive advantages of sulfurized-carbon cathodes (e.g., sulfurized polyacrylonitrile, also known as SPAN) were highlighted by a quantitative analysis performed by researchers at [[University of Maryland, College Park]] and [[Pacific Northwest National Laboratory]] in 2024.<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal |last1=Phan |first1=An L. |last2=Le |first2=Phung M.L. |last3=Wang |first3=Chunsheng |date=May 2024 |title=Realizing high-energy and long-life Li/SPAN batteries |url=https://doi.org/10.1016/j.joule.2024.04.003 |journal=Joule |volume=8 |issue=6 |pages=1601–1618 |doi=10.1016/j.joule.2024.04.003 |issn=2542-4351}}</ref> Their polysulfide shuttle free feature facilitates proper operation under lean electrolyte conditions (< 3&nbsp;g·(A·h)<sup>−1</sup>), which was proved to be extremely crucial to attain the full potential of Li-S batteries. The researchers proposed and analyzed unconventional perspectives on how to further improve both energy density and cycle life, highlighting the importance of a proper electrolyte (i.e., stable, lightweight, and highly Li<sup>+</sup>-conductive).<ref name=":6" />

== History ==
Li{{ndash}}S batteries were invented in the 1960s, when Herbert and Ulam patented a primary battery employing lithium or lithium alloys as anodic material, sulfur as cathodic material and an electrolyte composed of [[aliphatic compounds|aliphatic]] saturated [[amines]].<ref>{{cite patent |country=US |number=3043896 |status=patent |gdate=1962-07-10 |fdate=1958-11-24 |pridate=1957-11-26 |invent1 =Danuta, Herbert |invent2 = Juliusz, Ulam |title=Electric dry cells and storage batteries |assign=Electric Tech Corp }}</ref><ref>{{cite patent |country=US |number=3532543 |status=patent |gdate=1970-10-06 |fdate=1968-02-21 |pridate=1968-02-21 |invent1 =Nole, Dominick A. |invent2 = Moss, Vladimir |title=Battery employing lithium – sulphur electrodes with non-aqueous electrolyte |assign=Aerojet Rocketdyne Inc }}</ref> A few years later the technology was improved by the introduction of organic solvents as [[Propylene carbonate|PC]], [[Dimethyl sulfoxide|DMSO]] and [[Dimethylformamide|DMF]] yielding a 2.35–2.5 V battery.<ref>{{cite patent |country=US |number=3413154 |status=patent |gdate=1968-11-26 |fdate=1966-03-23 |pridate=1966-03-23 |invent1 =Mlarur, Rao |invent2 = Bhaskara, Lakshmanar |title=Organic electrolyte cells |assign=Duracell Inc USA }}</ref> By the end of the 1980s a rechargeable Li{{ndash}}S battery was demonstrated employing ethers, in particular [[Dioxolane|DOL]], as the electrolyte solvent.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Peled|first1=E.|last2=Gorenshtein|first2=A.|last3=Segal|first3=M.|last4=Sternberg|first4=Y.|date=May 1989|title=Rechargeable lithium–sulfur battery (extended abstract)|journal=Journal of Power Sources|language=en|volume=26|issue=3–4|pages=269–271|doi=10.1016/0378-7753(89)80133-8|bibcode=1989JPS....26..269P}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Peled|first=E.|date=1989|title=Lithium-Sulfur Battery: Evaluation of Dioxolane-Based Electrolytes|journal=Journal of the Electrochemical Society|language=en|volume=136|issue=6|pages=1621–1625|doi=10.1149/1.2096981|bibcode=1989JElS..136.1621P}}</ref>

In 2020 [[Arumugam Manthiram|Manthiram]] identified the critical parameters needed for achieving commercial acceptance.<ref name="sulfur">{{Cite journal | last1 = Bhargav | first1 = Amruth | last2 = Jiarui | first2 = He | doi = 10.1016/j.joule.2020.01.001 | title = Lithium-Sulfur Batteries: Attaining the Critical Metrics | journal = Joule | volume = 4 | pages = 285–291 | year = 2020 | issue = 2 | doi-access = free }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal | last1 = Manthiram | first1 = Arumugam | last2 = Fu | first2 = Yongzhu | last3 = Chung | first3 = Sheng-Heng | last4 = Zu | first4 = Chenxi | last5 = Su | first5 = Yu-Sheng| doi = 10.1021/cr500062v | title = Rechargeable Lithium–Sulfur Batteries | journal = Chemical Reviews | volume = 114 | pages = 11751–11787 | year = 2014 | issue = 23 | pmid = 25026475 }}</ref> Specifically, Li–S batteries need to achieve a sulfur loading of >5&nbsp;mg·cm<sup>−2</sup>, a carbon content of <5%, electrolyte-to-sulfur ratio of <5&nbsp;μL·mg<sup>−1</sup>, electrolyte-to-capacity ratio of <5&nbsp;μL·(mA·h)<sup>−1</sup>, and negative-to-positive capacity ratio of <5 in pouch-type cells.<ref name="sulfur" />

In 2021, researchers announced the use of a sugar-based anode additive that prevented the release of polysulfide chains from the cathodes that pollute the anode. A prototype cell demonstrated 1,000 charge cycles with a capacity of 700&nbsp;mAh/g.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Lavars|first=Nick|date=2021-09-13|title=Sugar-doped lithium sulfur battery promises up to 5 times the capacity|url=https://newatlas.com/energy/sugar-doped-lithium-sulfur-battery-capacity/|access-date=2021-09-20|website=New Atlas|language=en-US}}</ref>

In 2022, an interlayer was introduced that claimed to reduce polysulfide movement (protecting the anode) and facilitate lithium ion transfer to reduce charge/discharge times.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Lavars |first=Nick |date=2022-02-28 |title=Porous battery layer pulls once-a-week EV charging a step closer |url=https://newatlas.com/energy/porous-battery-layer-lithium-sulfur/ |access-date=2022-03-01 |website=New Atlas |language=en-US}}</ref> Also that year, researchers employed aramid nanofibers (nanoscale [[Kevlar]] fibers), fashioned into cell membrane-like networks. This prevented dendrite formation. It addressed polysulfide shuttle by using ion selectivity, by integrating tiny channels into the network and adding an electrical charge.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Lavars |first=Nick |date=2022-01-17 |title=Kevlar fibers fortify lithium-sulfur battery with 5x capacity of Li-ion |url=https://newatlas.com/energy/kevlar-fibers-lithium-sulfur-battery-five-times-capacity/ |access-date=2022-04-07 |website=New Atlas |language=en-US}}</ref>

Also in 2022, Researchers at [[Drexel University]] produced a prototype lithium-sulfur battery that did not degrade over 4000 charge cycles. Analysis has shown that the battery contained monoclinic gamma-phase sulfur, which has been thought to be unstable below 95 degrees Celsius, and only a few studies have shown this type of sulfur to be stable longer than 20 to 30 minutes.<ref>{{Cite journal |title=Stabilization of gamma sulfur at room temperature to enable the use of carbonate electrolyte in Li-S batteries |journal=Communications Chemistry |last=Pai |first=Rahul |date=2022-02-10 |volume=5 |issue=1 |page=17 |doi=10.1038/s42004-022-00626-2|pmid=36697747 |pmc=9814344 |s2cid=246704531 |doi-access=free }}</ref>

In 2024, researchers at [[University of California, San Diego|UC San Diego]] announced the discovery of a novel sulfur–iodine crystalline material that can drastically increase the electrical conductivity of a lithium–sulfur battery’s cathode by 11 orders of magnitude, making it 100 billion times more conductive than crystals made of sulfur alone. Moreover, the new material has self-healing properties which make it possible to repair the damage caused from recharge cycling by heating the new material.<ref name="ucsdtoday24">{{cite news |title=Healable Cathode Could Unlock Potential of Solid-state Lithium-sulfur Batteries |url=https://today.ucsd.edu/story/healable-cathode-could-unlock-potential-of-solid-state-lithium-sulfur-batteries |access-date=20 April 2024 |work=US San Diego Today |date=6 March 2024}}</ref>

==Chemistry==
Chemical processes in the Li–S cell include lithium dissolution from the [[anode]] surface (and incorporation into [[alkali metal]] [[polysulfide]] [[salt (chemistry)|salts]]) during discharge, and reverse lithium [[electroplating|plating]] to the anode while charging.<ref>Tudron, F.B., Akridge, J.R., and Puglisi, V.J. (2004) [https://web.archive.org/web/20180403174217/http://www.sionpower.com/pdf/articles/PowerSources2004.pdf "Lithium-Sulfur Rechargeable Batteries: Characteristics, State of Development, and Applicability to Powering Portable Electronics"] (Tucson, AZ: Sion Power)</ref>

=== Anode ===
At the [[anode|anodic]] surface, dissolution of the metallic lithium occurs, with the production of electrons and lithium ions during the discharge and electrodeposition during the charge. The [[half-reaction]] is expressed as:<ref>{{cite journal|first1=Rudra|last1=Kumar|date=2018|title=Recent research trends in Li–S batteries|journal=Journal of Materials Chemistry A|volume=6|number=25|language=en|access-date=2019-07-04|doi=10.1039/C8TA01483C|url=http://xlink.rsc.org/?DOI=C8TA01483C|first2=Jie|last2=Liu|first3=Jang-Yeon|last3=Hwang|pages=11582–11605}}</ref>

:<chem>Li <=> Li+ + e-</chem>

In analogy with lithium batteries, the dissolution / electrodeposition reaction causes over time problems of unstable growth of the solid-electrolyte interface (SEI), generating active sites for the [[nucleation]] and dendritic growth of lithium. Dendritic growth is responsible for the internal short circuit in lithium batteries and leads to the death of the battery itself.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal|first1=Teyeb|last1=Ould Ely|date=2018-05-29|title=Lithium–Sulfur Batteries: State of the Art and Future Directions|journal=ACS Applied Energy Materials|volume=1|number=5|language=en|doi=10.1021/acsaem.7b00153|first2=Dana|last2=Kamzabek|first3=Dhritiman|last3=Chakraborty|pages=1783–1814}}</ref>

=== Cathode ===
In Li–S batteries, energy is stored in the sulfur [[cathode]] (S<sub>8</sub>). During discharge, the lithium ions in the electrolyte migrate to the cathode where the sulfur is reduced to [[lithium sulphide|lithium sulphide (Li<sub>2</sub>S)]]. The sulfur is reoxidized to S<sub>8</sub> during the recharge phase. The semi-reaction is therefore expressed as:

:<chem>S + 2Li+ + 2e- <=> Li2S</chem> (E ° ≈ 2.15&nbsp;V vs Li / Li<sup>+</sup> )

Actually the sulfur reduction reaction to lithium sulphide is much more complex and involves the formation of lithium polysulphides (Li<sub>2</sub>S<sub>''x''</sub>, 2 ≤ ''x'' ≤ 8) at decreasing chain length according to:<ref>{{cite journal|first1=Zhan|last1=Lin|date=2015|title=Lithium–sulfur batteries: from liquid to solid cells|journal=Journal of Materials Chemistry A|volume=3|number=3|language=en|access-date=2019-07-04|doi=10.1039/C4TA04727C|url=http://xlink.rsc.org/?DOI=C4TA04727C|first2=Chengdu|last2=Liang|page=18|osti=1185628}}</ref>
::<chem>S8 \ + \ 2 Li -> Li2S8</chem>
::<chem>Li2S8 \ + \ 2 Li \ -> \ Li2S6 \ + \ Li2S2</chem>
::<chem>...</chem>

Over all:
::<chem>S8 \ + \ 8 Li \ -> 4 Li2S2</chem>

And the final step:
::<chem>Li2S2 \ + \ 2 Li \ -> \ 2 Li2S</chem>

The final product is actually a mixture of Li<sub>2</sub>S<sub>2</sub> and Li<sub>2</sub>S rather than pure Li<sub>2</sub>S, due to the slow reduction kinetics at Li<sub>2</sub>S.<ref name=":2">{{cite journal|first1=Min-Kyu|last1=Song|date=2013|title=Lithium/sulfur batteries with high specific energy: old challenges and new opportunities|journal=Nanoscale|volume=5|number=6|language=en|access-date=2019-07-04|doi=10.1039/c2nr33044j|url=http://xlink.rsc.org/?DOI=c2nr33044j|first2=Elton J.|last2=Cairns|first3=Yuegang|last3=Zhang|pages=2186–204|pmid=23397572|bibcode=2013Nanos...5.2186S}}</ref> This contrasts with conventional lithium-ion cells, where the lithium ions are [[intercalation (chemistry)|intercalated]] in the anode and cathodes. Each sulfur atom can host two lithium ions. Typically, lithium-ion batteries accommodate only 0.5–0.7 lithium ions per host atom.<ref>{{cite journal
|url=http://www.technologyreview.com/energy/22689/
|title=Revisiting Lithium-Sulfur Batteries
|first=Kevin
|last=Bullis
|journal=[[Technology Review]]
|date=May 22, 2009
|access-date=August 12, 2016
|archive-date=April 15, 2012
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120415013749/http://www.technologyreview.com/energy/22689/
}}</ref> Consequently, Li{{ndash}}S allows for a much higher lithium storage density. Polysulfides are [[Redox|reduced]] on the cathode surface in sequence while the cell is discharging:
:{{chem|S|8}} → {{chem|Li|2|S|8}} → {{chem|Li|2|S|6}} → {{chem|Li|2|S|4}} → {{chem|Li|2|S|3}}

Across a porous diffusion separator, sulfur [[polymers]] form at the [[cathode]] as the cell charges:
:{{chem|Li|2|S → {{chem|Li|2|S|2}} → {{chem|Li|2|S|3}} → {{chem|Li|2|S|4}} → {{chem|Li|2|S|6}} → {{chem|Li|2|S|8}} → S|8}}

These reactions are analogous to those in the [[sodium–sulfur battery]].

The main challenges of Li{{ndash}}S batteries is the low conductivity of sulfur and its considerable volume change upon discharging and finding a suitable cathode is the first step for commercialization of Li{{ndash}}S batteries.<ref>{{cite journal |title= Cathode Materials for Lithium–Sulfur Batteries: A Practical Perspective |last = Eftekhari |first=A. |year=2017 |pages=17734–17776 |doi= 10.1039/C7TA00799J |journal= Journal of Materials Chemistry A |volume= 5|issue = 34 }}</ref> Therefore, most researchers use a carbon/sulfur cathode and a lithium anode.<ref>{{cite journal |title= Improvement of cycle property of sulfur electrode for lithium/sulfur battery |last = Choi |first=Y.J. |author2=Kim, K.W.  |year=2008 |pages=313–316 |doi= 10.1016/j.jallcom.2006.02.098 |journal= Journal of Alloys and Compounds |volume= 449|issue = 1–2 }}</ref> Sulfur is very cheap, but has practically no [[Electric conductance|electroconductivity]], 5{{e|−30}}{{nbsp}}[[Siemens (unit)|S]]⋅cm<sup>−1</sup> at 25{{nbsp}}°C.<ref>{{cite book |title=Lange's Handbook of Chemistry |url=https://archive.org/details/langeshandbookof00lang_1 |url-access=registration |edition= third |publisher= McGraw-Hill |location=New York |year=1985 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/langeshandbookof00lang_1/page/3 3–5] |isbn=978-0-07-016192-4 |editor=J.A. Dean}}</ref> A carbon coating provides the missing electroconductivity. Carbon nanofibers provide an effective electron conduction path and structural integrity, at the disadvantage of higher cost.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Effects of carbon coating on the electrochemical properties of sulfur cathode for lithium/sulfur cell |last=Choi |first=Y. J. |author2=Chung, Y. D. |author3=Baek, C. Y. |author4=Kim, K. W. |author5=Ahn, J. H. |journal=J. Power Sources |pages=548–552 |date=March 4, 2008 |doi=10.1016/j.jpowsour.2008.02.053 |volume=184| issue=2 |bibcode=2008JPS...184..548C }}</ref> In 2024, researchers announced the discovery of a sulfur–iodine material that can dramatically increase the electrical conductivity of a lithium–sulfur battery’s cathode by 11 orders of magnitude, making it 100 billion times more conductive than crystals made of sulfur alone.<ref name="ucsdtoday24"/>

One problem with the lithium–sulfur design is that when the sulfur in the cathode absorbs lithium, volume expansion of the Li<sub>x</sub>S compositions occurs, and predicted volume expansion of Li<sub>2</sub>S is nearly 80% of the volume of the original sulfur.<ref>{{Cite journal |url= https://www.researchgate.net/publication/269710344 |title = ReaxFF molecular dynamics simulations on lithiated sulfur cathode materials|journal = Phys. Chem. Chem. Phys.|pages = 3383–3393|volume = 17|issue = 5|doi = 10.1039/c4cp04532g|pmid = 25529209|language = en|first1 = Md Mahbubul|last1 = Islam|first2 = Alireza|last2 = Ostadhossein|first3 = Oleg|last3 = Borodin|first4 = A. Todd|last4 = Yeates|first5 = William W.|last5 = Tipton|first6 = Richard G.|last6 = Hennig|first7 = Nitin|last7 = Kumar|first8 = Adri C. T. van|last8 = Duin|bibcode = 2015PCCP...17.3383I|date = 2015-01-21}}</ref> This causes large mechanical stresses on the cathode, which is a major cause of rapid degradation. This process reduces the contact between the carbon and the sulfur, and prevents the flow of lithium ions to the carbon surface.<ref>Brian Dodson, [https://newatlas.com/lithium-sulfur-battery-energy-density/29907/ "New lithium/sulfur battery doubles energy density of lithium-ion"], NewAtlas, 1 December 2013</ref>

Mechanical properties of the lithiated sulfur compounds are strongly contingent on the lithium content, and with increasing lithium content, the strength of lithiated sulfur compounds improves, although this increment is not linear with lithiation.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Islam |display-authors=etal  | year = 2015 |url= https://www.researchgate.net/publication/269710344 | title = ReaxFF molecular dynamics simulations on lithiated sulfur cathode materials | journal = Phys. Chem. Chem. Phys. | volume = 17 | issue = 5| pages = 3383–3393 | doi = 10.1039/C4CP04532G | pmid =  25529209| bibcode = 2015PCCP...17.3383I }}</ref>

One of the primary shortfalls of most Li–S cells is unwanted reactions with the electrolytes. While S and {{chem|Li|2|S}} are relatively insoluble in most electrolytes, many intermediate polysulfides are not. Dissolving {{chem|Li|2||S|''n''}} into electrolytes causes irreversible loss of active sulfur.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Jeong |first1= S. S. |last2= Lim |first2=Y. |last3=Choi |first3=Y. T.| last4=Kim |first4=K. W.| last5=Ahn |first5=H. J.| last6=Cho |first6=K. K.| year= 2006 | title= Electrochemical properties of lithium sulfur cells using PEO polymer electrolytes prepared under three different mixing conditions |pages=745–750 |doi= 10.1016/j.jpowsour.2007.06.108 |journal= J. Power Sources |volume= 174| issue=2|bibcode=2007JPS...174..745J}}</ref> Use of highly reactive lithium as a negative electrode causes dissociation of most of the commonly used other type electrolytes. Use of a protective layer in the anode surface has been studied to improve cell safety, i.e., using [[Teflon]] coating showed improvement in the electrolyte stability,<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Islam | first1 = Md Mahbubul | last2 = Bryantsev | first2 = Vyacheslav S. | last3 = van Duin | first3 = Adri CT | year = 2014 | title = ReaxFF Reactive Force Field Simulations on the Influence of Teflon on Electrolyte Decomposition during Li/SWCNT Anode Discharge in Lithium-Sulfur Batteries | journal = Journal of the Electrochemical Society | volume = 161 | issue = 8| pages = E3009–E3014 | doi = 10.1149/2.005408jes | s2cid = 52235837 | url = http://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/2a78/5bfba40f0395e971d0e1a16b215b6c44d564.pdf | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20190221002727/http://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/2a78/5bfba40f0395e971d0e1a16b215b6c44d564.pdf | archive-date = 2019-02-21 }}</ref> LIPON, Li<sub>3</sub>N also exhibited promising performance.

== Polysulfide "shuttle"<span class="anchor" id="Polysulfide_shuttle"></span><span class="anchor" id="Polysulfide_"></span><span class="anchor" id="Polysulfide shuttle"></span><!-- This Anchor tag serves to provide a permanent target for incoming section links. Please do not remove it, nor modify it, except to add another appropriate anchor.  If you modify the section title, please anchor the old title. It is always best to anchor an old section header that has been changed so that links to it will not be broken. See [[Template:Anchor]] for details. This template is {{subst:Anchor comment}} --><!-- Second anchor makes (defective) link from https://arstechnica.com/science/2020/01/will-lithium-sulfur-batteries-be-in-our-future/ work.--> ==
Historically, the "shuttle" effect is the main cause of degradation in a Li{{ndash}}S battery.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last1=Manthiram|first1=Arumugam|last2=Fu|first2=Yongzhu|last3=Chung|first3=Sheng-Heng|last4=Zu|first4=Chenxi|last5=Su|first5=Yu-Sheng|date=2014-12-10|title=Rechargeable Lithium–Sulfur Batteries|journal=Chemical Reviews|volume=114|issue=23|pages=11751–11787|doi=10.1021/cr500062v|pmid=25026475|issn=0009-2665}}</ref> The lithium polysulfide Li<sub>2</sub>S<sub>x</sub> (6≤x≤8) is highly soluble<ref>{{cite book  |title=Chemically Derived Graphene: Functionalization, Properties and Applications |edition=illustrated |first1=Kintao |last1=Zhang |publisher=Royal Society of Chemistry |year=2018 |isbn=978-1-78801-080-1 |page=224 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9HRaDwAAQBAJ}} [https://books.google.com/books?id=9HRaDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA224 Extract of page 224]</ref> in the common electrolytes used for Li{{ndash}}S batteries. They are formed and leaked from the cathode and they diffuse to the anode, where they are reduced to short-chain polysulfides and diffuse back to the cathode where long-chain polysulfides are formed again. This process results in the continuous leakage of active material from the cathode, lithium corrosion, low coulombic efficiency and low battery life.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Song|first1=Min-Kyu|last2=Cairns|first2=Elton J.|last3=Zhang|first3=Yuegang|date=2013|title=Lithium/sulfur batteries with high specific energy: old challenges and new opportunities|journal=Nanoscale|language=en|volume=5|issue=6|pages=2186–204|doi=10.1039/c2nr33044j|pmid=23397572|issn=2040-3364|bibcode=2013Nanos...5.2186S}}</ref> Moreover, the "shuttle" effect is responsible for the characteristic self-discharge of Li{{ndash}}S batteries, because of slow dissolution of polysulfide, which occurs also in rest state.<ref name=":1" /> The "shuttle" effect in a Li{{ndash}}S battery can be quantified by a factor f<sub>c</sub> (0 < f<sub>c</sub> < 1), evaluated by the extension of the charge voltage plateau. The factor ''f<sub>c</sub>'' is given by the expression:<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Mikhaylik|first1=Yuriy V.|last2=Akridge|first2=James R.|date=2004 |url= https://www.researchgate.net/publication/234950370 |title=Polysulfide Shuttle Study in the Li/S Battery System|journal=Journal of the Electrochemical Society|language=en|volume=151|issue=11|pages=A1969|doi=10.1149/1.1806394|bibcode=2004JElS..151A1969M|doi-access=free}}</ref>

<math display="block">fc =\frac{k_\text{s}q_\text{up}[S_\text{tot}]}{I_c} </math>

where ''k<sub>s</sub>'', ''q<sub>up</sub>'', ''[S<sub>tot</sub>]'' and ''I<sub>c</sub>'' are respectively the kinetic constant, specific capacity contributing to the anodic plateau, the total sulfur concentration and charge current.

In 2022,<ref name="auto">{{cite journal |last1=Pai |first1=Rahul |last2=Singh |first2=Arvinder |last3=Tang |first3=Maureen H. |last4=Kalra |first4=Vibha |title=Stabilization of gamma sulfur at room temperature to enable the use of carbonate electrolyte in Li-S batteries |journal=Communications Chemistry |date=10 February 2022 |volume=5 |issue=1 |page=17 |doi=10.1038/s42004-022-00626-2 |pmid=36697747 |pmc=9814344 |s2cid=246704531 |language=en |issn=2399-3669|doi-access=free }}</ref> researchers reported the use of a cathode made from [[carbon nanofibers]]. Elemental sulfur was deposited onto the carbon substrate (cf. [[physical vapor deposition]]), which formed the rare and usually metastable monoclinic [[Allotropes of sulfur#List of allotropes and forms|γ-Sulfur]] allotrope. This allotrope reversibly reacts to {{chem|Li|2|S}} without the formation of intermediate polysulfides {{chem|Li|2|S|x}}. Therefore, carbonate electrolytes, which commonly react with those polysulfides, can be used instead of the rather dangerous ether based electrolytes (low flash and boiling points).<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Tao |first1=Xinyong |last2=Liu |first2=Yayuan |last3=Liu |first3=Wei |last4=Zhou |first4=Guangmin |last5=Zhao |first5=Jie |last6=Lin |first6=Dingchang |last7=Zu |first7=Chenxi |last8=Sheng |first8=Ouwei |last9=Zhang |first9=Wenkui |last10=Lee |first10=Hyun-Wook |last11=Cui |first11=Yi |title=Solid-State Lithium–Sulfur Batteries Operated at 37 °C with Composites of Nanostructured Li 7 La 3 Zr 2 O 12 /Carbon Foam and Polymer |journal=Nano Letters |date=10 May 2017 |volume=17 |issue=5 |pages=2967–2972 |doi=10.1021/acs.nanolett.7b00221 |pmid=28388080 |bibcode=2017NanoL..17.2967T  |language=en |issn=1530-6984}}</ref>

Its initial capacity was 800&nbsp;Ah/kg (classical LiCoO<sub>2</sub>/graphite batteries have a cell capacity of 100&nbsp;Ah/kg). It decayed only very slowly, on average 0.04% each cycle, and retained 658&nbsp;Ah/kg after 4000 cycles (82%).<ref name="auto"/>

== Electrolyte ==
Conventionally, Li{{ndash}}S batteries employ a liquid organic electrolyte, contained in the pores of PP separator.<ref name=":1" /> The electrolyte plays a key role in Li{{ndash}}S batteries, acting both on "shuttle" effect by the polysulfide dissolution and the SEI stabilization at anode surface. It has been demonstrated that the electrolytes based on organic carbonates commonly employed in Li-ion batteries (i.e. PC, [[ethylene carbonate|EC]], [[diethyl carbonate|DEC]] and mixtures of them) are not compatible with the chemistry of Li{{ndash}}S batteries.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Yim|first1=Taeeun|last2=Park|first2=Min-Sik|last3=Yu|first3=Ji-Sang|last4=Kim|first4=Ki Jae|last5=Im|first5=Keun Yung|last6=Kim|first6=Jae-Hun|last7=Jeong|first7=Goojin|last8=Jo|first8=Yong Nam|last9=Woo|first9=Sang-Gil|date=September 2013|title=Effect of chemical reactivity of polysulfide toward carbonate-based electrolyte on the electrochemical performance of Li–S batteries|journal=Electrochimica Acta|language=en|volume=107|pages=454–460|doi=10.1016/j.electacta.2013.06.039}}</ref> Long-chain polysulfides undergo nucleophilic attack on electrophilic sites of carbonates, resulting in the irreversible formation of by-products as [[ethanol]], [[methanol]], [[ethylene glycol]] and [[thiocarbonate]]s. In Li{{ndash}}S batteries are conventionally employed cyclic ethers (as [[Dioxolane|DOL]]) or short-chain ethers (as [[Dimethyl ether|DME]]) as well as the family of glycol ethers, including [[Diglyme|DEGDME]] and [[Tetraethylene glycol dimethyl ether|TEGDME]].<ref name=":2a">{{cite journal|last1=Scheers|first1=Johan|last2=Fantini|first2=Sébastien|last3=Johansson|first3=Patrik|date=June 2014|title=A review of electrolytes for lithium–sulphur batteries|journal=Journal of Power Sources|language=en|volume=255|pages=204–218|doi=10.1016/j.jpowsour.2014.01.023|bibcode=2014JPS...255..204S}}</ref> One common electrolyte is 1M [[Lithium bis(trifluoromethanesulfonyl)imide|LiTFSI]] in DOL:DME 1:1 vol. with 1%w/w di LiNO<sub>3</sub> as additive for lithium surface passivation.<ref name=":2a" />

==Safety==
Because of the high potential energy density and the nonlinear discharge and charging response of the cell, a [[microcontroller]] and other safety circuitry is sometimes used along with [[voltage regulator]]s to manage cell operation and [[Thermal runaway|prevent rapid discharge]].<ref>Akridge, J.R. (October 2001) [https://web.archive.org/web/20180124005809/http://www.sionpower.com/pdf/articles/CellandBatterySafety0602.pdf "Lithium Sulfur Rechargeable Battery Safety"] ''Battery Power Products & Technology''</ref>

==Lifespan==
Lithium-sulfur (Li-S) batteries have a shorter lifespan compared to traditional [[Li-ion batteries]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.samaterials.com/lithium-sulfur-batteries-lithium-ion-batteries.html |title=Lithium-Sulfur Batteries vs. Lithium-Ion Batteries: A Comparative Analysis |last=Trento |first=Chin |website=Stanford Advanced Materials |date=Dec 27, 2023 |access-date=July 11, 2024}}</ref> Recent advancements in materials and [[electrolyte]] formulations have shown potential to extend its [[cycle life]] to over 1,000 cycles.<ref name="cycle" /> One of the primary factors limiting the lifespan of Li-S batteries is the dissolution of [[polysulfides]] in the [[electrolyte]], which leads to the shuttle effect and results in capacity loss over time.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Yu |first1=Linghui |last2=Ong |first2=Samuel |year=2021 |title=The importance of the dissolution of polysulfides in lithium-sulfur batteries and a perspective on high-energy electrolyte/cathode design |journal=Electrochimica Acta |volume=392 |doi=10.1016/j.electacta.2021.139013|hdl=10356/155660 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> The operating temperature and cycling rate also play significant roles in determining the lifespan of Li-S batteries.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Liu |first1=Y |last2=Wang |first2=T |year=2023 |title=Challenges and Solutions for Low-Temperature Lithium-Sulfur Batteries: A Review |journal=Materials |volume=16 |issue=12 |page=4359 |doi=10.3390/ma16124359|doi-access=free |pmid=37374546 |pmc=10302741 }}</ref>

==Research==

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Research
! Anode
! Cathode
! Date
! Source
! Specific capacity after cycling
! Notes
|-
|Lithium metal||[[Polyethylene glycol]] coated, pitted mesoporous carbon || 17 May 2009 || [[University of Waterloo]]<ref name=":0">Xiulei Ji, Kyu Tae Lee, and Linda F. Nazar. (17 May 2009)[https://www.researchgate.net/publication/24433491 "A highly ordered nanostructured carbon-sulphur cathode for lithium-sulphur batteries."] ''Nature Materials''</ref> ||  1,110{{nbsp}}mA⋅h/g after 20 cycles at a current of 168{{nbsp}}mA⋅g{{sup|−1}}<ref name=":0" />
|| Minimal degradation during charge cycling. To retain polysulfides in the cathode, the surface was functionalized to repel (hydrophobic) polysulfides. In a test using a [[glycol ethers|glyme]] solvent, a traditional sulfur cathode lost 96% of its sulfur over 30 [[charge cycle|cycles]], while the experimental cathode lost only 25%.
|-
|Lithium metal || Sulfur-coated, disordered carbon hollow carbon nanofibers || 2011 || [[Stanford University]]<ref>{{cite journal|last=Guangyuan|first=Zheng|author2=Yuan Yang |author3=Judy J. Cha |author3-link=Judy Cha|author4=Seung Sae Hong |author5=Yi Cui |url= http://blogs.cuit.columbia.edu/yanggroup/files/2018/08/1-20.pdf |title=Hollow Carbon Nanofiber-Encapsulated Sulfur Cathodes for High Specific Capacity Rechargeable Lithium Batteries |date=14 September 2011|journal=Nano Letters|pages=4462–4467|doi=10.1021/nl2027684|bibcode = 2011NanoL..11.4462Z |volume=11 |issue=10|pmid=21916442}}</ref><ref name="Keller">{{cite news |first1=Sarah Jane |last1=Keller|url=http://news.stanford.edu/news/2011/october/sulfur-nanofibers-battery-100411.html |title=Sulfur in hollow nanofibers overcomes challenges of lithium-ion battery design |work=Stanford News |date=October 4, 2011 |publisher=Stanford University  |access-date=February 18, 2012}}</ref> || 730{{nbsp}}mA⋅h/g after 150 cycles (at 0.5{{nbsp}}C) || An electrolyte additive boosted the [[faraday efficiency]] from 85% to over 99%.
|-
|Silicon nanowire/carbon || Sulfur-coated, disordered carbon nanotubes made from carbohydrates || 2013 || CGS<ref>{{cite journal|last=Rosenberg|first=Sarah|author2=Hintennach |title=Laser-printed lithium-sulphur micro-electrodes for Li/S batteries |date=1 April 2014|journal=Russian Journal of Electrochemistry|volume=50|issue=4|pages=327–335 |doi=10.1134/S1023193514040065|s2cid=97154966}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Vandenberg|first=Aurelius|author2=Hintennach |title=A novel design approach for lithium-sulphur batteries |date=1 April 2014|journal=Russian Journal of Electrochemistry|volume=50|issue=4|pages=317–326 |doi=10.1134/S102319351306013X|s2cid=96826100}}</ref> || 1,300{{nbsp}}mA⋅h/g after 400 cycles (at 1{{nbsp}}C) || Microwave processing of materials and laser-printing of electrodes.
|-
|Silicon carbon || Sulfur || 2013||[[Fraunhofer Institute]] for Material and Beam Technology IWS<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.gizmag.com/researchers-increase-lifespan-lis-batteries/26911/ |title=Researchers increase lifespan of lithium-sulfur batteries |date=4 April 2013 |publisher=Gizmag.com |access-date=2013-12-04}}</ref> ||? after 1,400 cycles
|-
| ||[[Copolymer]]ized sulfur || 2013||[[University of Arizona]]<ref>{{Cite journal | last1 = Chung | first1 = W. J. | last2 = Griebel | first2 = J. J. | last3 = Kim | first3 = E. T. | last4 = Yoon | first4 = H. | last5 = Simmonds | first5 = A. G. | last6 = Ji | first6 = H. J. | last7 = Dirlam | first7 = P. T. | last8 = Glass | first8 = R. S. | last9 = Wie | first9 = J. J. | last10 = Nguyen | first10 = N. A. | last11 = Guralnick | first11 = B. W. | last12 = Park | first12 = J. | last13 = Somogyi | first13 = Á. D. | last14 = Theato | first14 = P. | last15 = MacKay | first15 = M. E. | last16 = Sung | first16 = Y. E. | last17 = Char | first17 = K.|author18-link=Jeffrey Pyun| last18 = Pyun | first18 = J. | title = The use of elemental sulfur as an alternative feedstock for polymeric materials | doi = 10.1038/nchem.1624 | journal = Nature Chemistry | volume = 5 | issue = 6 | pages = 518–524 | year = 2013 | pmid =  23695634| bibcode = 2013NatCh...5..518C }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Radical approach to turn sulfur into polymers|url=http://www.chemistryworld.com/news/radical-approach-to-turn-sulfur-into-polymers/6067.article|date=2013-04-16|author=Caryl Richards}}</ref>
 || 823{{nbsp}}mA⋅h/g at 100 cycles || Uses "inverse [[vulcanization]]" on mostly sulfur with a small amount of 1,3-diisopropenylbenzene (DIB) additive
|-
| || Porous {{chem|TiO|2}}-encapsulated sulfur nanoparticles ||2013||Stanford University<ref>{{cite web|author=SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory (6 Posts) |url=http://cleantechnica.com/2013/01/08/world-record-battery-performance-achieved-with-egg-like-nanostructures/ |title=World-Record Battery Performance Achieved With Egg-Like Nanostructures |publisher=CleanTechnica |date=2013-01-08 |access-date=2013-06-11}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal | last1 = Wei Seh | first1 = Z. | last2 = Li | first2 = W. | last3 = Cha | first3 = J. J. | last4 = Zheng | first4 = G. | last5 = Yang | first5 = Y. | last6 = McDowell | first6 = M. T. | last7 = Hsu | first7 = P. C. | last8 = Cui | first8 = Y. | doi = 10.1038/ncomms2327 | title = Sulphur–TiO2 yolk–shell nanoarchitecture with internal void space for long-cycle lithium–sulphur batteries | journal = Nature Communications | volume = 4 | page = 1331 | year = 2013 | pmid =  23299881| bibcode = 2013NatCo...4.1331W | doi-access = free }}</ref> ||721{{nbsp}}mA⋅h/g at 1,000 cycles (0.5{{nbsp}}C)||  shell protects the sulfur-lithium intermediate from electrolyte solvent. Each cathode particle is 800 nanometers in diameter. [[Faraday efficiency]] of 98.4%.
|-
| || Sulfur || June 2013 ||[[Oak Ridge National Laboratory]] ||1200{{nbsp}}mA·h/g at 300 cycles at 60{{nbsp}}°C (0.1{{nbsp}}C) 
800{{nbsp}}mA·h/g at 300 cycles at 60{{nbsp}}°C (1{{nbsp}}C)<ref>{{cite journal |url= http://diyhpl.us/~bryan/papers2/paperbot/1efd1920760b882bd4ca5e3b544f3ed3.pdf |title=Lithium Polysulfidophosphates: A Family of Lithium-Conducting Sulfur-Rich Compounds for Lithium–Sulfur Batteries | doi=10.1002/anie.201300680 | volume=52|issue = 29|journal=Angewandte Chemie International Edition|pages=7460–7463|pmid=23737078 | last1 = Lin | first1 = Z | last2 = Liu | first2 = Z | last3 = Fu | first3 = W | last4 = Dudney | first4 = NJ | author4-link=Nancy Dudney | last5 = Liang | first5 = C|year = 2013|s2cid=37368147 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160910063005/http://diyhpl.us/~bryan/papers2/paperbot/1efd1920760b882bd4ca5e3b544f3ed3.pdf |archive-date=2016-09-10 }}</ref> 
|| Solid lithium polysulfidophosphate electrolyte. Half the voltage of typical LIBs. Remaining issues include low electrolyte ionic conductivity and brittleness in the ceramic structure.<ref>{{Cite journal | last1 = Lin | first1 = Z. | last2 = Liu | first2 = Z. | last3 = Fu | first3 = W. | last4 = Dudney | first4 = N. J. |author4-link = Nancy Dudney| last5 = Liang | first5 = C. |url= http://diyhpl.us/~bryan/papers2/paperbot/1efd1920760b882bd4ca5e3b544f3ed3.pdf | title = Lithium Polysulfidophosphates: A Family of Lithium-Conducting Sulfur-Rich Compounds for Lithium-Sulfur Batteries | doi = 10.1002/anie.201300680 | journal = Angewandte Chemie International Edition | pages =  7460–7463| year = 2013 | pmid =  23737078| volume=52| issue = 29 | s2cid = 37368147 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160910063005/http://diyhpl.us/~bryan/papers2/paperbot/1efd1920760b882bd4ca5e3b544f3ed3.pdf | archive-date = 2016-09-10 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://newatlas.com/lithium-sulfur-battery/27834/ |title=All-solid lithium-sulfur battery stores four times the energy of lithium-ions |date=7 June 2013 |publisher=NewAtlas.com |access-date=2013-06-13}}</ref>
|-
| Lithium || Sulfur-[[graphene oxide]] nanocomposite with [[styrene-butadiene]]-[[carboxymethyl cellulose]] copolymer binder || 2013 || [[Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory]]<ref>{{cite web|url=https://newatlas.com/lithium-sulfur-battery-energy-density/29907/ |title=New lithium/sulfur battery doubles energy density of lithium-ion |date=2 December 2013 |publisher=NewAtlas.com |access-date=2013-12-04}}</ref> || 700{{nbsp}}mA·h/g at 1,500 cycles (0.05{{nbsp}}C discharge) 
400{{nbsp}}mA·h/g at 1,500 cycles (0.5{{nbsp}}C charge / 1{{nbsp}}C discharge)
||Voltage between about 1.7 and 2.5 volts, depending on charge state. Lithium bis(trifluoromethanesulfonyl)imide) dissolved in a mixture of nmethyl-(n-butyl) pyrrolidinium bis(trifluoromethanesulfonyl)-imide (PYR14TFSI), 1,3-dioxolane (DOL), dimethoxyethane (DME) with 1 M [[Lithium bis(trifluoromethanesulfonyl)imide|lithium bis-(trifluoromethylsulfonyl)imide]] (LiTFSI), and lithium nitrate ({{chem|LiNO|3}}). High porosity polypropylene separator. Specific energy is 500{{nbsp}}W⋅h/kg (initial) and 250{{nbsp}}W⋅h/kg at 1,500 cycles (C=1.0)
|-
| Lithiated  graphite || Sulfur || February 2014 || [[Pacific Northwest National Laboratory]] || 400 cycles|| Coating prevents polysulfides from destroying the anode.<ref>{{cite web|title=Hybrid anode quadruples the lifespan of lithium-sulfur batteries |first= Nick |last=Lavars |date=February 20, 2014 |url=https://newatlas.com/hybrid-anode-improves-lithium-sulfur-battery-life-by-four-times/30925/ |access-date=August 22, 2016}}</ref>
|-
|Lithiated graphene
|Sulfur/Lithium-sulfide passivation layer
|2014
|OXIS Energy<ref>{{Cite news|url = https://www.economist.com/news/science-and-technology/21637344-adding-sulphur-electrical-cells-may-quintuple-their-performance-whiff|title = A whiff of brimstone|date = January 3, 2015|work = Economist|access-date = August 22, 2016}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url = http://www.greencarcongress.com/2014/11/20141112-oxis.html|title = Li{{ndash}}S battery company OXIS Energy reports 300&nbsp;W⋅h/kg and 25&nbsp;A⋅h cell, predicting 33&nbsp;A⋅h by mid-2015, 500&nbsp;W⋅h/kg by end of 2018|date = November 12, 2014|publisher = Green Car Congress|access-date=August 22, 2016 }}</ref>
|240{{nbsp}}mA·h/g (1000 cycles)
25{{nbsp}}A·h/cell
|Passivation layer prevents sulfur loss
|-
| Lithiated  hard-carbon || Sulfur-copolymer (poly(S-co-DVB)) || 2019 || [[Chungnam National University]] || 400 mAh/g for 500 cycles at 3C|| The SEI of hard-carbon prevents polysulphides deposition at anode and enables high-rate performance.<ref>{{Cite journal | last1 = Nguyen | first1 = D.-T. | last2 =  Hoefling | first2 = A. | last3 =  Yee | first3 = M. | last4 =  Nguyen | first4 = T. H. G. | last5 =  Theato | first5 = P. | last6 =  Lee | first6 = Y. J. | last7 =  Song | first7 = S.-W.| title = Enabling high-rate and safe lithium ion-sulfur battery by effective combination of sulfur-copolymer cathode and hard-carbon anode | doi = 10.1002/cssc.201802430| pmid = 30479038 | journal = ChemSusChem | volume=12| issue = 2 | pages =  480–486 | year = 2019 | s2cid = 53771189 }}</ref>
|-
|Lithium sulfur batteries
|Carbon nanotube/Sulfur
|2014
|Tsinghua University<ref>{{Cite journal |url= http://www.qianggroup.com/wp/pdf/AFM-2014-Hierarchical%20Free-Standing%20Carbon-Nanotube%20Paper%20Electrodes%20with%20Ultrahigh%20Sulfur-Loading%20for%20Lithium%E2%80%93Sulfur%20Batteries.pdf |title = Hierarchical Free-Standing Carbon-Nanotube Paper Electrodes with Ultrahigh Sulfur-Loading for Lithium–Sulfur Batteries|journal = Advanced Functional Materials|date = 2014-10-01|issn = 1616-3028|pages = 6105–6112|volume = 24|issue = 39|doi = 10.1002/adfm.201401501|language = en|first1 = Zhe|last1 = Yuan|first2 = Hong-Jie|last2 = Peng|first3 = Jia-Qi|last3 = Huang|first4 = Xin-Yan|last4 = Liu|first5 = Dai-Wei|last5 = Wang|first6 = Xin-Bing|last6 = Cheng|first7 = Qiang|last7 = Zhang| s2cid=97124341 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20200103232206/http://www.qianggroup.com/wp/pdf/AFM-2014-Hierarchical%20Free-Standing%20Carbon-Nanotube%20Paper%20Electrodes%20with%20Ultrahigh%20Sulfur-Loading%20for%20Lithium%E2%80%93Sulfur%20Batteries.pdf|archive-date = 2020-01-03}}</ref>
|15.1{{nbsp}}mA·h⋅cm<sup>−2</sup> at a sulfur loading of 17.3{{nbsp}}mg<sub>S</sub>⋅cm<sup>−2</sup>
|A free-standing CNT–S paper electrode with a high areal sulfur-loading was fabricated, in which short MWCNTs served as the short-range electrical conductive network and super-long CNTs acted as both the long-range conductive network and intercrossed binders.
|-
|
|Glass-coated sulfur with mildly reduced [[graphene oxide]] for structural support
|2015
|University of California, Riverside<ref>{{Cite news|url = http://www.rdmag.com/news/2015/03/glass-coating-improved-battery-performance |title = Glass coating for improved battery performance|last = Nealon|first = Sean|date = 2015-03-03|work = R&D|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150307171420/http://www.rdmag.com/news/2015/03/glass-coating-improved-battery-performance|access-date = August 22, 2016|archive-date = 2015-03-07}}</ref>
|700{{nbsp}}mA⋅h⋅g<sup>−1</sup> (50 cycles)<ref>{{Cite news|url = http://phys.org/news/2015-03-glass-coating-battery.html|title = Glass coating improves battery performance|last = Nealon|first = Sean|date = March 2, 2015|work = phys.org|access-date = August 22, 2016}}</ref>
|Glass coating prevents lithium polysulfides from permanently migrating to an electrode
|-
|Lithium
|Sulfur
|2016
|[https://projects.leitat.org/alise LEITAT]
|500{{nbsp}}W⋅h/kg
|ALISE H2020 project developing a Li{{ndash}}S battery for cars with new components and optimized regarding anode, cathode, electrolyte and separator
|-
|Lithium metal
|Sulfurized graphene
|2021
|CATRIN, Palacký University [https://www.catrin.com/]
|644{{nbsp}}mA⋅h⋅g<sup>−1</sup> (250 cycles)
|An efficient and straightforward approach to prepare a covalently sulfurized graphene cathode for Li{{ndash}}S batteries with high sulfur content and high cycling stability.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Tantis |first1=Iosif |last2=Bakandritsos |first2=Aristides |last3=Zaoralová |first3=Dagmar |last4=Medveď |first4=Miroslav |last5=Jakubec |first5=Petr |last6=Havláková |first6=Jana |last7=Zbořil |first7=Radek |last8=Otyepka |first8=Michal |title=Covalently Interlinked Graphene Sheets with Sulfur-Chains Enable Superior Lithium–Sulfur Battery Cathodes at Full-Mass Level |journal=Advanced Functional Materials |date=2021 |volume=31 |issue=30 |page=2101326 |doi=10.1002/adfm.202101326 |s2cid=234870475 |language=en |issn=1616-3028|doi-access=free }}</ref>
|-
|
|Sulfur-loaded carbon nanotubes
|2022
|[[Korea Electrotechnology Research Institute]]<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Jo |first1=Seong-Chan |last2=Hong |first2=Jeong-Won |last3=Choi |first3=Ik-Hyeon |last4=Kim |first4=Min-Ju |last5=Kim |first5=Byung Gon |last6=Lee |first6=You-Jin |last7=Choi |first7=Hye Young |last8=Kim |first8=Doohun |last9=Kim |first9=TaeYoung |last10=Baeg |first10=Kang-Jun |last11=Park |first11=Jun-Woo |date=May 2022 |title=Multimodal Capturing of Polysulfides by Phosphorus-Doped Carbon Composites for Flexible High-Energy-Density Lithium–Sulfur Batteries |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/smll.202200326 |journal=Small |language=en |volume=18 |issue=21 |page=2200326 |doi=10.1002/smll.202200326 |pmid=35285157 |s2cid=247437352 |issn=1613-6810}}</ref>
|850{{nbsp}}mA⋅h⋅g<sup>−1</sup> (100 cycles)
|Uses a phosphorus-doped [[activated carbon]] separator layer to minimize the polysulfide shuttle effect, while creating a foldable battery.
|-
|Lithium metal
|Lithium thiophosphate catholyte
|2023
|[[Dartmouth College]],
[[Stanford University]]<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Wang |first1=Peiyu |last2=Kateris |first2=Nikolaos |last3=Li |first3=Baiheng |last4=Zhang |first4=Yiwen |last5=Luo |first5=Jianmin |last6=Wang |first6=Chuanlong |last7=Zhang |first7=Yue |last8=Jayaraman |first8=Amitesh S. |last9=Hu |first9=Xiaofei |last10=Wang |first10=Hai |last11=Li |first11=Weiyang |date=2023-08-17 |title=High-Performance Lithium–Sulfur Batteries via Molecular Complexation |url=https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/jacs.3c05209 |journal=Journal of the American Chemical Society |volume=145 |issue=34 |pages=18865–18876 |language=en |doi=10.1021/jacs.3c05209 |pmid=37589666 |issn=0002-7863}}</ref>
|1271 mA⋅h⋅g<sup>−1</sup> (200 cycles)
|Adding [[phosphorus pentasulfide]] to a Li–S catholyte leads to the formation of complexes that accommodate the discharge product (Li<sub>2</sub>S) and allow high cyclability and low temperature performance.
|}

==Commercialization==
As of 2021 few companies had been able to commercialize the technology on an industrial scale. Companies such as Sion Power have partnered with [[Airbus Defence and Space]] to test their lithium sulfur battery technology. Airbus Defense and Space successfully launched their prototype [[High Altitude Pseudo-Satellite]] (HAPS) aircraft powered by solar energy during the day and by lithium sulfur batteries at night in real life conditions during an 11-day flight.  The batteries used in the test flight utilized Sion Power's Li{{ndash}}S cells that provide 350&nbsp;W⋅h/kg.<ref>Kopera, J (September 2014) [https://web.archive.org/web/20170613075533/http://www.sionpower.com/pdf/articles/Sion_Power_Zephyr_Flight_Press_Release_2014.pdf "Sion Power's Lithium-Sulfur Batteries Power High Altitude Pseudo-Satellite Flight"] ''Sion Power Company Press Release''</ref> Sion originally claimed to be in the process of volume manufacturing with availability by end of 2017; however more recently it can be seen that they have dropped work on their lithium sulfur battery in favor of a lithium-metal battery.<ref>{{cite web|title=Sion Power Delivers Next Generation Battery Performance Through Patented Licerion® Technology|url=http://www.businesswire.com/news/home/20161003005315/en/Sion-Power-Delivers-Generation-Battery-Performance-Patented|access-date=4 October 2016|date=2016-10-03}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://sionpower.com/2018/sion-power-announces-launch-of-its-groundbreaking-licerion-rechargeable-lithium-battery/|title=Sion Power Announces Launch of its Groundbreaking Licerion Rechargeable Lithium Battery, Sion Power|website=sionpower.com}}</ref>

British firm OXIS Energy developed prototype lithium sulfur batteries.<ref>{{cite web  | date=July 14, 2015  | url=http://www.oxisenergy.com/blog/anesco-and-oxis-to-release-lithium-sulfur-battery-storage-by-2016  | title=Anesco and OXIS to Release Lithium Sulfur Battery Storage by 2016  | type=press release| publisher=OXIS Energy
 | access-date=August 22, 2016 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web  | date=February 22, 2015  | url=http://oxisenergy.com/blog/oxis-technology-powers-driverless-vehicle-for-the-uk-governments-smart-city/  | title=OXIS battery powers driverless vehicle for the UK Government's Smart City Gateway programme  | type=press release
 | publisher=OXIS Energy   | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160429232744/http://oxisenergy.com/blog/oxis-technology-powers-driverless-vehicle-for-the-uk-governments-smart-city/  | access-date=August 22, 2016 | archive-date=2016-04-29  }}</ref>  Together with [[Imperial College London]] and [[Cranfield University]], they published [[equivalent-circuit-network]] models for its cells.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Propp |first1=K. |last2=Marinescu |first2=M. |last3=Auger |first3=D. J. |last4=O'Neill |first4=L. |last5=Fotouhi |first5=A. |last6=Somasundaram |first6=K. |last7=Offer |first7=G. J. |last8=Minton |first8=G. |last9=Longo |first9=S. |last10=Wild |first10=M. |last11=Knap |first11=V. |display-authors=3 |date=August 12, 2016 |title=Multi-temperature state-dependent equivalent circuit discharge model for lithium-sulfur batteries |journal=J. Power Sources |volume=328 |pages=289–299 |doi=10.1016/j.jpowsour.2016.07.090 |bibcode=2016JPS...328..289P |doi-access=free |hdl=10044/1/39221 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> With Lithium Balance of Denmark they built a prototype scooter battery system primarily for the Chinese market, which had a capacity of 1.2{{nbsp}}kWh using 10{{nbsp}}Ah Long Life cells, and weighed 60% less than lead acid batteries with a significant increase in range.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.nextbigfuture.com/2016/06/lithium-sulfur-batteries-will-be-first.html|title=Lithium Sulfur batteries will be first commercialized by 2018 in electric bikes where energy density will be improved for eventual use in electric cars|website=nextbigfuture.com|access-date=2017-02-02|date=2016-06-10}}</ref>  They also built a 3U, 3,000{{nbsp}}W⋅h Rack-Mounted Battery that weighed only 25{{nbsp}}kg and was said to be fully scalable.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://oxisenergy.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/08/OXIS-Rack-Mounted-Battery.pdf | title=OXIS Rack-Mounted Battery | publisher=OXIS Energy | access-date=May 20, 2017 | archive-date=August 26, 2018 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180826152407/http://oxisenergy.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/08/OXIS-Rack-Mounted-Battery.pdf }}</ref>  They claimed their Lithium-Sulfur batteries would cost about $200/kWh in mass production.<ref>{{cite web
 | url=https://www.slideshare.net/e4sv/edinburgh-may16-oxis-energy-ltd-lis-batteries-for-energy-storage-applications | title=OXIS Energy Lithium-Sulfur Battery Technology Presentation | publisher=OXIS Energy | access-date=May 20, 2017 | date=2016-11-03  }}</ref>  However, the firm entered bankruptcy (insolvency) status in May 2021.<ref>{{cite news | url=https://cen.acs.org/energy/energy-storage-/Oxis-Energy-files-bankruptcy/99/i24 |title=Oxis Energy files for bankruptcy |work=[[Chemical & Engineering News]] |last=Scott |first=Alex |date=2021-06-26 |access-date=2022-08-15 }}</ref>

[[Sony]], which also commercialized the first lithium-ion battery, planned to introduce lithium–sulfur batteries to the market in 2020, but has provided no updates since the initial announcement in 2015.<ref>{{cite web
 |url=http://asia.nikkei.com/Tech-Science/Tech/Sony-battery-to-offer-40-longer-phone-life
 |title=Sony battery to offer 40% longer phone life
 |date=December 17, 2015
 |access-date=August 22, 2016
 |website=Nikkei Asian Review
}}
</ref>

Monash University's Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering in Melbourne, Australia  developed an ultra-high capacity Li–S battery that has been manufactured by partners at the Fraunhofer Institute for Material and Beam Technology in Germany. It is claimed the battery can provide power to a smartphone for five days.<ref>{{cite web
 |url=https://www.theengineer.co.uk/lithium-sulphur-battery/ |title='World's most efficient lithium-sulphur battery' set for launch
 |date=January 6, 2020
 |access-date= January 9, 2020
 |website=The Engineer
}}
</ref>

In 2022, the German company Theion claimed to introduce lithium–sulfur batteries for mobile devices in 2023 and for vehicles by 2024.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Morris |first=James |title=Sulfur Battery Technology Could Make Electric Cars Go Three Times Further By 2024 |url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/jamesmorris/2022/04/02/sulfur-battery-technology-could-make-electric-cars-go-three-times-further-by-2024/ |access-date=2022-08-28 |website=Forbes |language=en}}</ref>

In January 2023, [[Houston, Texas]] company [[Zeta Energy]] was awarded $4 million by the [[United States Department of Energy]] [[ARPA-E]] program to advance its lithium-sulfur batteries based on a sulfurized-carbon cathode and a vertically-aligned carbon nanontube anode.<ref>{{cite news |title=Zeta Energy: Enabling Fast Charging Batteries with 3D Lithium Metal Architectures and Sulfurized Carbon Cathodes |url=https://arpa-e.energy.gov/technologies/projects/enabling-fast-charging-batteries-3d-lithium-metal-architectures-and |access-date=September 28, 2023 |agency=United States Department of Energy |date=January 13, 2023}}</ref>

In June 2023, [[San Jose, California]] company Lyten started up a pilot production line making about 100 batteries a day.<ref name=SJMN_2023-06-14 >{{ cite news | url=https://www.mercurynews.com/2023/06/14/lyten-san-jose-battery-economy-tech-jobs-real-estate-green-car-energy/ | title=Lyten launches San Jose pilot production for cutting-edge batteries – Company hopes lithium-sulfur batteries can revolutionize sector | last=Avalos | first=George | newspaper=[[San Jose Mercury News]] | date=2023-06-14 }}</ref> In 2024, Lyten announced plans a billion-dollar gigafactory in Reno, Nevada, to build up to 10 gigawatt-hours of lithium–sulfur batteries annually.<ref>{{cite news |title=US startup Lyten to invest over $1 bln in Nevada lithium-sulfur battery factory |url=https://www.reuters.com/technology/us-startup-lyten-invest-over-1-bln-nevada-lithium-sulfur-battery-factory-2024-10-15/ |access-date=16 October 2024 |publisher=Reuters |date=15 October 2024}}</ref>

== See also ==
{{Portal|Energy}}
* [[List of battery types]]

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}

==External links==
*{{cite web |url=http://polyplus.com/lisulfur.html |title=PolyPlus Lithium Sulfur |publisher=Polyplus.com |access-date=2013-04-06 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130420054932/http://polyplus.com/lisulfur.html |archive-date=2013-04-20 }}
*{{cite web|url=http://sionpower.com/ |title=Sion Power |publisher=Sion Power |access-date=2013-04-06}}
*{{cite web|url=http://en.winston-battery.com/index.php/products/power-battery/category/lsp-battery |title=Winston Battery Limited |publisher=En.winston-battery.com |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140325161004/http://en.winston-battery.com/index.php/products/power-battery/category/lsp-battery |access-date=2013-04-06|archive-date=2014-03-25 }}
*[https://www.eemb.com/ "EEMB Battery"]. EEMB Battery. Retrieved 2018-04-13.

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Lithium-sulfur battery}}
[[Category:Rechargeable batteries]]
[[Category:Metal-sulfur batteries]]
[[Category:Lithium-ion batteries]]