View source for List of inventions and discoveries by women

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{{Women in society sidebar|science}}
{{incomplete list|date=February 2015}}

This page aims to list inventions and discoveries in which women played a major role.
<!--List entries should have their own article to demonstrate the notability of the invention or discovery.-->

==Medicine==
===Pharmaceuticals===
;[[Aciclovir]] 
:[[Gertrude B. Elion]] contributed to the development of aciclovir, an [[antiviral drug]] used for the treatment of [[herpes simplex virus]] infections, [[chickenpox]], and [[shingles]].<ref name="deClercq2005">{{Cite news|title=Antiviral prodrugs – the development of successful prodrug strategies for antiviral chemotherapy|last1=de Clercq|first1=Erik|date=5 October 2005|periodical=[[British Journal of Pharmacology]]|publisher=Wiley-Blackwell|last2=Field|first2=Hugh J|issue=1|publication-date=January 2006|volume=147|pages=1–11|doi=10.1038/sj.bjp.0706446|pmc=1615839|pmid=16284630}}</ref>

;[[Artemisinin]] and [[dihydroartemisinin]]
:[[Tu Youyou]] discovered artemisinin and dihydroartemisinin, both now standard treatments for [[malaria]]. Artemisinin is isolated from the plant [[Artemisia annua]], sweet wormwood, a herb employed in [[Chinese traditional medicine]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medicine/laureates/2015/tu-facts.html|title=Youyou Tu - Facts|website=www.nobelprize.org|access-date=2018-08-08}}</ref>

;[[Azathioprine]]
:Azathioprine is an [[Immunosuppressive drug]] used in [[rheumatoid arthritis]], [[granulomatosis with polyangiitis]], [[Crohn's disease]], [[ulcerative colitis]], and in [[kidney transplant]]s to prevent [[Transplant rejection|rejection]] first synthesized by [[George H. Hitchings]] and [[Gertrude B. Elion]] in 1957 .<ref name="CHF">{{cite web|title=George Hitchings and Gertrude Elion|url=https://www.sciencehistory.org/historical-profile/george-hitchings-and-gertrude-elion|website=Science History Institute|access-date=20 March 2018|date=June 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Axelrad|first1=JE|last2=Lichtiger|first2=S|last3=Yajnik|first3=V|date=28 May 2016|title=Inflammatory bowel disease and cancer: The role of inflammation, immunosuppression, and cancer treatment.|journal=World Journal of Gastroenterology|type=Review|volume=22|issue=20|pages=4794–801|doi=10.3748/wjg.v22.i20.4794|pmc=4873872|pmid=27239106 |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name="Sing2017">{{cite journal|last1=Singer|first1=O|last2=McCune|first2=WJ|date=May 2017|title=Update on maintenance therapy for granulomatosis with polyangiitis and microscopic polyangiitis.|journal=Current Opinion in Rheumatology|volume=29|issue=3|pages=248–253|doi=10.1097/BOR.0000000000000382|pmid=28306595|s2cid=35805200}}</ref>

;[[AZT]]
:[[Flossie Wong-Staal]] was the first scientist to clone [[HIV]] and map its genes.<ref name=":3" /> [[Gertrude Elion]] made foundational contributions to the development of [[AZT]], one of the first [[antiretroviral medications]] used in the prevention and treatment of [[HIV/AIDS]].<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |title=AZT {{!}} drug |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/science/AZT |access-date=2018-08-07 |language=en}}</ref>

;[[Mercaptopurine]]
:Mercaptopurine is a medication for [[cancer]] and [[autoimmune diseases]] including [[acute lymphocytic leukemia]] (ALL), [[chronic myeloid leukemia]] (CML), [[Crohn's disease]], and [[ulcerative colitis]]. It was discovered by  [[Gertrude B. Elion]] and [[George H. Hitchings]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://pubs.acs.org/cen/coverstory/83/8325/83256-mercaptopurine.html|title=Chemical & Engineering News: Top Pharmaceuticals: 6-Mercaptopurine|website=pubs.acs.org|access-date=2018-08-07}}</ref>

;[[Pyrimethamine]]
:Pyrimethamine, sold under the trade name Daraprim, is an anti-parasitic medication used to treat a variety of conditions including [[toxoplasmosis]] and [[isosporiasis]]. Pyrimethamine was initially developed by Nobel Prize winning scientist [[Gertrude Elion]] as a treatment for malaria.<ref name=":0">{{cite book |last1=Vasudevan |first1=D.M. |last2=Sreekumari |first2=S. |last3=Vaidyanathan |first3=Kannan |title=Textbook of Biochemistry for Medical Students |date=2013 |publisher=JP Medical Ltd |isbn=9789350905302 |oclc=843532694 |page=491 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nQz8AAAAQBAJ&pg=PA491 |access-date=January 15, 2016 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170908221240/https://books.google.com/books?id=nQz8AAAAQBAJ&pg=PA491 |archive-date=September 8, 2017 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medicine/laureates/1988/press.html|title=Physiology or Medicine 1988 - Press Release|website=www.nobelprize.org|access-date=2018-08-07}}</ref>

;[[Vitamin E]]
:[[Katharine Bishop]] and [[Herbert McLean Evans]] co-discovered Vitamin E while studying the reproductive cycle of rats.

===Pediatrics===
[[File:Virginia Apgar.jpg|thumb|Virginia Apgar<ref>Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division, New York World-Telegram and the Sun Newspaper Photograph Collection.</ref>]]
;[[Apgar score]]
:Invented in 1952 by [[Virginia Apgar]].

;[[Disposable diapers]]
:The first disposable diaper was invented in 1946 by [[Marion Donovan]], a professional-turned-housewife who wanted to ensure her children's cloth diapers remained dry while they slept.<ref>{{citation | last = Blattman | first = Elissa | title = Three Every-day Items Invented by Women | publisher = National Women's History Museum | year = 2013 | url = https://www.womenshistory.org/articles/three-every-day-items-invented-women}}</ref> Donovan patented her design (called 'Boaters') in 1951. She also invented the first paper diapers, but executives did not invest in this idea and it was consequently scrapped for over ten years, until Procter & Gamble used Donovan's design ideas to create [[Pampers]].

:Another diaper design was created by [[Valerie Hunter Gordon]] (née de Ferranti), who patented it in 1948.<ref>{{cite web|title=The History of Paddi|publisher=paddi.org.uk|url=http://www.paddi.org.uk/Paddi-History.php|access-date=August 1, 2012|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120404192409/http://www.paddi.org.uk/Paddi-History.php|archive-date=April 4, 2012|df=mdy-all}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|last=BBC – Radio4|title=Home truth – Nappy days|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/radio4/hometruths/20050228_nappy_inventor.shtml|access-date=October 20, 2011}}</ref>

;[[Child carrier]]s
:Snugli and Weego were invented by nurse and [[peacekeeping|peacekeeper]] [[Ann Moore (inventor)|Ann Moore]] first in the 1960s.

;[[Pertussis vaccine|Pertussis Vaccine]] 
:A pioneering female American [[Physician|doctor]], [[medical researcher]] and an outspoken voice in the pediatric community, the supercentenarian [[Leila Alice Denmark]] (1898–2012) is credited as co-developer of the [[pertussis]] (whooping cough) [[vaccine]].{{Citation needed|date=January 2022}}

==Astronomy and astrophysics==
;[[Stellar classification#Harvard spectral classification|Harvard Stellar Classification Scheme]]
:The first classification of stars based on their temperature, created by [[Annie Jump Cannon]], used in publications up to 1924.

;[[Pulsars]]
:Rapidly rotating [[neutron star]]s discovered by [[Jocelyn Bell Burnell]] in 1967.

;The [[galaxy rotation problem]]
:A major piece of evidence for the presence of [[dark matter]] in the Universe, discovered by [[Vera Rubin]] from observations of galactic [[rotation curves]] in the 1970s.

;[[Stars]] [[luminosity]]
:[[Henrietta Swan Leavitt]] was an American astronomer who discovered the relation between the [[luminosity]] and the [[period (physics)|period]] of [[Cepheid]] [[variable stars]] at the beginning of 20th century.
:[[Merieme Chadid]] is a French and Moroccan astronomer and explorer who discovered hypersonic shock waves in [[variable stars]] as well as the first astronomer committed to install a large observatory at the heart of Antarctica towards an understanding [[Stellar evolution|of stellar evolution]] in the [[Universe]] by leading scientific [[polar exploration]]s.

;[[Radio astronomy]]
:[[Ruby Violet Payne-Scott]] was an Australian pioneer in [[radiophysics]] and [[radio astronomy]] as well as the first female [[radio astronomer]]<ref>{{Citation|title=Under the radar: the first woman in radio astronomy: Ruby Payne-Scott|date=2010|author1=Goss, W. M. (William Miller)|author2=McGee, Richard X|publisher=Springer|isbn=978-3-642-03140-3}}</ref> discovering Type I and Type III solar radio bursts.

;[[Stars]] are  primarily composed of [[hydrogen]] and [[helium]]
:[[Cecilia Payne-Gaposchkin]] found in her 1925 PhD thesis that stars are primarily composed of [[hydrogen]] and [[helium]].  Thus, her thesis established that hydrogen is the most abundant [[Chemical element|element]] in the Universe.<ref name=":2" />

:When Payne's dissertation was reviewed, astronomer [[Henry Norris Russell]] dissuaded her from concluding that the composition of the Sun was predominantly hydrogen and thus very different from that of the Earth, as it contradicted the accepted wisdom at the time. She consequently described the result in her thesis as "spurious".<ref name=":2">{{Cite book|title=We Need to Talk About Kelvin|last=Chown|first=Marcus|publisher=faber and faber|year=2009|pages=99–100}}</ref> Russell realized she was correct four years later after having derived the same result by different means and publishing it in 1929. He acknowledged Payne's work and discovery admiringly in his paper but he is often credited for the conclusions they both reached.<ref name='russell'>
{{cite journal
 |last=Russell 
 |first=Henry
 |year=1929
 |title=On the Composition of the Suns Atmosphere
 |volume=70
 |pages=11
 |journal=Astrophysical Journal 
 |bibcode=1929ApJ....70...11R
 |doi=10.1086/143197
 }}</ref><ref name='newnham'>
{{cite web
 |last=Padman |first=R.
 |year=2004
 |title=Cecilia Payne-Gaposchkin (1900–1979)
 |url=http://www.newn.cam.ac.uk/about-newnham/college-history/biographies/content/cecila-payne-gaposchkin
 |work=Newnham College Biographies
 |publisher=[[Newnham College]]
 |access-date=2010-03-05
}}</ref><ref name='epigenesys'>{{cite web
 |title=A friend to the stars: Cecilia Payne-Gaposchkin
 |url=http://www.epigenesys.eu/en/science-and-you/women-in-science/808-cecilia-payne-gaposchkin
 |publisher=epigenesys.eu
 |access-date=2014-09-22
 |archive-date=2015-03-07
 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150307184237/http://www.epigenesys.eu/en/science-and-you/women-in-science/808-cecilia-payne-gaposchkin
 |url-status=dead
 }}</ref>

;The new outer arm of the [[Milky Way#Spiral arms|Milky Way]]
:In 2004, [[astrophysicist]] and [[radio astronomer]] [[Naomi McClure-Griffiths]]  identified a new [[spiral arm]] of the [[Milky Way]] galaxy.<ref name="2004 arm">{{cite magazine|title=Milky Way spiral gets an extra arm|url=https://www.newscientist.com/article/dn4959-milky-way-spiral-gets-an-extra-arm/|access-date=24 November 2015|magazine=[[New Scientist]]|date=9 May 2004|location=London, UK}}</ref> 
[[File:PIA19341-MilkyWayGalaxy-SpiralArmsData-WISE-20150603.jpg|thumb|PIA19341-MilkyWayGalaxy-SpiralArmsData-WISE-20150603]]

==Physics==
;[[Radiation]]
:[[Marie Curie]] (born Maria Salomea Skłodowska) was the first woman to receive a [[Nobel Prize|Nobel]] prize for her works on [[radiations]] and, up until today,{{when|date=May 2018}}<!-- maybe use an {{as of}} template? --> the only woman to receive two Nobel prizes (among them, one Nobel prize in [[chemistry]] for discoveries on [[polonium]] and [[radium]]). She is the sole [[laureate]] to be recognized within two distinct [[scientific]] areas.

:[[Fanny Gates]] further investigated the properties of radiation. Together with [[Ernest Rutherford]], she amassed evidence that radioactivity was not the result of any simple chemical or physical processes.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Women in chemistry: their changing roles from alchemical times to the mid-twentieth century|last=F.|first=Rayner-Canham, Marelene|date=1998|publisher=American Chemical Society|others=Rayner-Canham, Geoffrey.|isbn=978-0841235229|location=Washington, DC|oclc=38886653|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/womeninchemistry0000rayn}}</ref> In particular, Gates showed that radioactivity could not be destroyed by heat or ionization due to chemical reactions, and that radioactive materials differ from phosphorescent [[materials]] both qualitatively and quantitatively.<ref name=ucla>
{{cite web
 | last = Byers, Moszkowski, Wong
 | title = Fanny Cook Gates, 1872–1931
 | work = Contributions of 20th Century Women to Physics
 | publisher = CWP at UCLA
 | url = http://cwp.library.ucla.edu/Phase2/Gates,_Fanny_Cook@842511724.html
 | access-date = 2014-02-01}}</ref>
:
:[[Chien-Shiung Wu]] was the first scientist to confirm [[Enrico Fermi]]’s theory of radioactive beta decay. She also overturned the theory of parity in physics.<ref name=":3">{{Cite web |title=Meet 10 Women in Science Who Changed the World |url=https://www.discovermagazine.com/the-sciences/meet-10-women-in-science-who-changed-the-world |access-date=2024-12-14 |website=Discover Magazine |language=en}}</ref>

;[[Radon]]
:In 1901, [[Harriet Brooks]] and [[Ernest Rutherford]] contributed to the discovery of the element [[radon]] by finding evidence that the "emanation" emitted by [[thorium]] compounds was likely to be a gas.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Brenner|first=David J.|date=2000|title=Rutherford, the Curies, and Radon|journal=Medical Physics|volume=27|issue=3|pages=618|doi=10.1118/1.598902|pmid=10757614|issn=0094-2405|bibcode=2000MedPh..27..618B}}</ref> This follows work in 1899 by [[Pierre Curie|Pierre]] and [[Marie Curie]], who observed that the gas emitted by radium remained radioactive for a month.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Curie, P.|author2=Curie, Mme. Marie|date=1899|title=''Sur la radioactivite provoquee par les rayons de Becquerel''|journal=Comptes Rendus Hebdomadaires des Séances de l'Académie des Sciences|volume=129|pages=714–6}}</ref>

;[[Kinetic energy]]
:[[Emilie du Châtelet]] (born Gabrielle Émilie Le Tonnelier de Breteuil) translated [[Isaac Newton]]'s ''[[Principia Mathematica]]'' from Latin to French during the 18th century. She carried out physics experiments, popularizing the work of [[Leibniz]]. She demonstrated that the [[kinetic energy]] of an object was proportional to its mass and the square of its velocity, and postulated a [[conservation law]] for the total energy of a system.

;Heavy elements in [[cosmic radiation]]
:As a graduate student, [[Phyllis S. Freier]] found evidence for the existence of elements heavier than [[helium]] in [[cosmic radiation]]. Her work was published in ''Physical Review'' in 1948 with co-authors [[Edward J. Lofgren]], [[Edward P. Ney]], and [[Frank Oppenheimer]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Freier|first1=Phyllis|last2=Lofgren|first2=E. J.|last3=Ney|first3=E. P.|last4=Oppenheimer|first4=F.|last5=Bradt|first5=H. L.|last6=Peters|first6=B.|date=1948-07-15|title=Evidence for Heavy Nuclei in the Primary Cosmic Radiation|journal=Physical Review|volume=74|issue=2|pages=213–217|doi=10.1103/PhysRev.74.213|bibcode=1948PhRv...74..213F}}</ref>

;[[Beta particle]]s are [[electron]]s.
:[[Gertrude Scharff Goldhaber]] and her husband [[Maurice Goldhaber]] showed that [[beta particles]] were identical to [[electrons]].<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia|url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Maurice-Goldhaber|title=Maurice Goldhaber {{!}} American physicist|encyclopedia=Encyclopedia Britannica|access-date=2018-10-14|language=en}}</ref>

;[[Top quark]]
:[[Melissa Franklin]]'s team at [[Fermilab]] found some of the first evidence for the existence of the [[top quark]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Campagnari|first1=Claudio|last2=Franklin|first2=Melissa|date=1997-01-01|title=The discovery of the top quark|journal=Reviews of Modern Physics|volume=69|issue=1|pages=137–212|doi=10.1103/RevModPhys.69.137|arxiv=hep-ex/9608003| bibcode=1997RvMP...69..137C |s2cid=45098995}}</ref>

;[[Nuclear shell]]
:[[Maria Goeppert Mayer]], a German immigrant to the US who studied at [[Johns Hopkins University|Johns Hopkins]] during the [[Great Depression]], persisted in her studies even when no university would employ her and became a [[chemical physicist]]. Her most-famous contribution to [[modern physics]] was discovering the [[nuclear shell]] of the [[atomic nucleus]], for which she won the [[Nobel Prize]] in 1963.

;[[Slow light]]
:[[Lene Hau]] led a [[Harvard University]] team who used a [[Bose–Einstein condensate]] to [[slow light|slow down a beam of light]] to about 17 [[metre per second|metres per second]], and, in 2001, was able to stop a beam completely.<ref name="Lene Hau">{{cite web|url=https://www.physicscentral.com/explore/people/hau.cfm |title=Lene Hau}}</ref>

;[[Astatine]] 
:The [[Austrians|Austrian]] [[physicist]] [[Berta Karlik]] discovered that the element 85 [[astatine]] is a product of the natural [[radioactive decay|decay]] processes.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://lise.univie.ac.at/physikerinnen/historisch/berta-karlik.htm|title=Physikerin - Berta Karlik|website=lise.univie.ac.at}}</ref>

;[[Bohr–van Leeuwen theorem]]
:In her 1919 thesis,<ref>{{cite web|author=Hendrika Johanna van Leeuwen |url=https://ilorentz.org/history/proefschriften/sources/vanLeeuwen_1919.pdf |title=Vraagstukken uit de electronentheorie van het magnetisme  |year=1919|language=nl}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal
|first = Hendrika Johanna 
|last = van Leeuwen
|url = https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/jpa-00204299/en/
|title = Problèmes de la théorie électronique du magnétisme
|journal = [[Journal de Physique et le Radium]]
|volume = 2
|issue = 12
|pages  = 361–377
|year = 1921
|doi = 10.1051/jphysrad:01921002012036100
|s2cid = 97259591
}}</ref> [[Hendrika Johanna van Leeuwen]] explained why [[magnetism]] is an essentially [[quantum mechanics|quantum mechanical]] effect, a result now referred to as the [[Bohr–van Leeuwen theorem]]. ([[Niels Bohr]] had arrived at the same conclusion a few years earlier.)

;[[Francium]]
:In 1939, [[Marguerite Perey]], a student of [[Marie Curie]], discovered the element [[francium]] by purifying samples of [[lanthanum]] that contained [[actinium]].  Perey first noticed that the actinium she purified was emitting unexpected radiation. After further study she was able to isolate this new element which she named "[[francium]]" for France.<ref name=nyt>{{cite magazine|title=My Great-Great-Aunt Discovered Francium. It Killed Her.|magazine=New York Times Magazine|date=3 December 2014|first=Veronique|last=Greenwood|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2014/12/07/magazine/my-great-great-aunt-discovered-francium-and-it-killed-her.html}}</ref>

;[[Nuclear fission]]
:Austrian–Swedish [[physicist]] [[Lise Meitner]], together with [[Otto Hahn]] and [[Otto Robert Frisch]], led the small group of scientists who first discovered [[nuclear fission]] of uranium when it absorbed an extra [[neutron]].  The results were published in early 1939.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1">{{Cite journal | last1 = Frisch | first1 = O. R. | title = Physical Evidence for the Division of Heavy Nuclei under Neutron Bombardment | doi = 10.1038/143276a0 | journal = Nature | volume = 143 | issue = 3616 | pages = 276 | year = 1939 | bibcode = 1939Natur.143..276F | doi-access = free }} [The experiment for this letter to the editor was conducted on 13 January 1939; see Richard Rhodes ''The Making of the Atomic Bomb'' 263 and 268 (Simon and Schuster, 1986).]</ref> Meitner, Hahn and Frisch understood that the fission process, which splits the atomic nucleus of uranium into two smaller nuclei, must be accompanied by an enormous release of energy. Nuclear fission is the process exploited by [[nuclear power|nuclear reactors]] to generate heat and, subsequently, electricity.<ref name="nytobit">{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1968/10/28/archives/lise-meitner-dies-atomic-pioneer-89-lise-meitner-physicist-is-dead.html|title=Lise Meitner Dies; Atomic Pioneer, 89. Lise Meitner, Physicist, Is Dead. Paved Way for Splitting of Atom.|date=28 October 1968|work=[[The New York Times]]|access-date=18 April 2008|quote=Dr. Lise Meitner, the Austrian born nuclear physicist who first calculated the enormous energy released by splitting the uranium atom, died today in a Cambridge nursing home. She was 89 years old.}}</ref> This process is also one of the basics of [[nuclear weapon]]s that were developed in the U.S. during [[World War II]] and used against Japan in 1945.

;'''Structure of the [[Milky Way]]'''
:[[Heidi Jo Newberg]]'s team found that Milky Way is cannibalizing stars from smaller galaxies<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2000/04/11/science/halo-reveals-remains-of-milky-way-s-galactic-snacks.html|title=Halo Reveals Remains of Milky Way's Galactic Snacks|last=Glanz|first=James|date=April 11, 2000|newspaper=The New York Times|access-date=November 15, 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Newberg|first1=Heidi Jo|last2=Yanny|first2=Brian|last3=Rockosi|first3=Connie|author-link3=Constance M. Rockosi|last4=Grebel|first4=Eva K.|last5=Rix|first5=Hans-Walter|last6=Brinkmann|first6=Jon|last7=Csabai|first7=Istvan|last8=Hennessy|first8=Greg|last9=Hindsley|first9=Robert B.|date=April 10, 2002|title=The Ghost of Sagittarius and Lumps in the Halo of the Milky Way|journal=Astrophysical Journal|volume=569|issue=1|pages=245–274|arxiv=astro-ph/0111095|bibcode=2002ApJ...569..245N|doi=10.1086/338983|author-link1=Heidi Jo Newberg|last10=Ibata|first10=Rodrigo|last11=Ivezić|first11=Zeljko|last12=Lamb|first12=Don|last13=Nash|first13=E. Thomas|last14=Odenkirchen|first14=Michael|last15=Rave|first15=Heather A.|last16=Schneider|first16=D. P.|last17=Smith|first17=J. Allyn|last18=Stolte|first18=Andrea|last19=York|first19=Donald G.|s2cid=16909562}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2003/01/14/science/in-galaxies-near-and-far-new-views-of-universe-emerge.html|title=In Galaxies Near and Far, New Views of Universe Emerge|last=Wilford|first=John Noble|date=January 14, 2003|newspaper=The New York Times|access-date=November 15, 2011}}</ref> and that the Milky Way is larger and has more ripples than was previously understood.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.skyandtelescope.com/astronomy-news/ripples-in-the-milky-way-0316201523/|title=Ripples in the Milky Way|last=Carlisle|first=Camille M.|date=March 16, 2015|newspaper=Sky & Telescope|access-date=2015-03-20}}</ref>

;[[Chirped pulse amplification]]
:[[Donna Strickland]] received the [[Nobel Prize in Physics|2018 Nobel Prize in Physics]] for the discovery of chirped pulse amplification, a technique which "paved the way towards the shortest and most intense laser pulses ever created by mankind."<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/physics/2018/press-release/|title=The Nobel Prize in Physics 2018|website=NobelPrize.org|language=en-US|access-date=2018-10-03}}</ref>

;[[Semiconductor saturable-absorber mirror]]
:semiconductor saturable absorber mirror (SESAM) invented and demonstrated by [[Ursula Keller]] in 1992

;Conwell–Weisskopf theory
:One of the first ionized impurity scattering mobility models proposed by [[Esther Conwell]] in 1950

==Chemistry==
;[[Catalysis]]
:The concept of catalysis invented by Scottish chemist [[Elizabeth Fulhame]]

;[[Kevlar]]
:A powerful [[para-aramid]] [[synthetic fiber]], developed by [[Stephanie Kwolek]] at [[DuPont]] in 1965

;[[Polonium]] and [[radium]]
:The discoveries of elements [[radium]] and [[polonium]] were made by Polish chemist [[Marie Curie]] through the deep study of their nature and their [[chemical compound|compounds]].

;[[Rhenium]]
:Rhenium, a [[d-block]] [[transition metal]] with Atomic number 75, was first isolated by [[Ida Noddack]] and her husband. The existence of this element was predicted by [[Dmitri Mendeleev]]. Ida Noddack was nominated three times for the Nobel Prize in Chemistry.

;[[Seaborgium]]
:[[Carol Alonso]] was a co-discoverer of seaborgium, a synthetic [[chemical element]] with symbol '''Sg''' and [[atomic number]] 106.<ref>A. Ghiorso, J. M. Nitschke, J. R. Alonso, C. T. Alonso, M. Nurmia, G. T. Seaborg, E. K. Hulet and R. W. Lougheed, Physical Review Letters 33, 1490 (1974)</ref>

;[[Scotchgard]]
:This [[stain]] repellent and [[durable water repellent]] was co-invented by chemists [[Patsy Sherman]] and [[Samuel Smith (chemist)|Samuel Smith]] while working for [[3M]].

;[[Langmuir–Blodgett film]]
:The technique for making Langmuir–Blodgett film, which involves immersing a substrate into a solution to deposit a monolayer of molecules onto a substrate, was co-invented by [[Katharine Burr Blodgett]] and [[Irving Langmuir]] while working for [[General Electric]]. Earlier work by [[Agnes Pockels]] influenced the development of the trough.

;[[Zeolite Y]]
:Zeolite Y, a [[molecular sieve]] used to catalyse fractional distillation in petroleum refining, was invented by [[Edith M. Flanigen]] while working for [[Union Carbide]]. Flanigen also co-invented a synthetic emerald and was the first female recipient of the [[Perkin Medal]] in 1992.

;Synthetic [[radiochemistry]]
:[[Irene Joliot-Curie]] was awarded the 1935 [[Nobel Prize in Chemistry]] for synthesis of new radioactive elements for application in medicine. The prize was shared jointly with her husband Jean Frederic Joliot.

;Structure of [[benzene]]
:The planar structure of benzene, an important cyclic [[aromatic hydrocarbon]], was determined by [[Kathleen Lonsdale]] using [[X-ray crystallography]]. The nature of the chemical bonds had been a mystery for many years. Alongside [[Marjory Stephenson]], [[Kathleen Lonsdale]] was one of the first two women to be elected a [[Fellow of The Royal Society]].

;Structure of [[vitamin B12]]
:The chemical structure was determined by [[Dorothy Hodgkin]] using crystallographic data. She was awarded the [[Nobel Prize in Chemistry]] for her work on Vitamin B12 and other complex molecules.

;[[Electron microscopy]]
:The in-situ atomic-resolution environmental transmission electron microscope (ETEM) was created by [[Pratibha Gai]] in 2009. This microscope allows for visualisation of chemical reactions at the atomic scale. Dame Gai decided not to patent her device, the culmination of 20 years' work, in order to further the advancement of science.

;[[Photocatalysis]]
:In 2015, [[Deepika Kurup]] invented a photocatalytic composite material that removes 100% of faecal coliform bacteria from contaminated water. Deepika has won the [[Discovery Education 3M Young Scientist Challenge]] award and The US Stockholm Junior Water Prize for her work.

;Surface chemistry ([[surface science]])
:[[Agnes Pockels]] pioneered the new discipline of surface chemistry from her kitchen after being denied formal science training due to her gender. She created the Pockels Trough to measure surface tension, published several papers and was credited by [[Lord Rayleigh]] and [[Irving Langmuir]].

;[[Mass spectrometry]]
:[[Sybil M. Rock]] developed the mathematical techniques used in analysing the results from mass spectrometers and devised many of the procedures for mixture analysis.

;[[Carbon dioxide]]
:[[Eunice Newton Foote]] was the first scientist to make the connection between the amount of carbon dioxide in our atmosphere and climate change in 1856. She discovered the warming properties of carbon dioxide and the "greenhouse effect." She was able to submit her experiment and findings at the annual meeting of the American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS); however, because she was a woman and not able to be a member of the organization, Professor [[Joseph Henry]] of the Smithsonian Institution presented her findings.

;[[Bioorthogonal chemistry]]
:The term was coined by [[Carolyn Bertozzi]] in 2003. Since its introduction, the concept of the bioorthogonal reaction has enabled the study of biomolecules such as glycans, proteins, and lipids

==Geology==
;[[Inner core|Earth's inner core]]
:Discovered in 1936 by Danish seismologist [[Inge Lehmann]]. Through her work on seismology she was able to conclude that the Earth had a solid inner core and a molten outer core to explain inconsistencies in seismic wave data from earth quakes. 
:
'''Documentation of all volcanos in planet Earth.'''<blockquote>In February 2005, [[Rosaly Lopes]] – planetary scientist and volcanologist – wrote [[bibcode:2005vag..book.....L|"Volcano Adventure Guide"]], in order to document every single volcano on planet Earth through a variety of aspects. This is the only book that addresses all volcanos on Earth; it provides information such as: volcano behavior, types of eruptions, dangers, maps, and even travel tips. </blockquote>

==Household==
;Square-bottom paper bag
:In 1868, [[Margaret E. Knight|Margaret Knight]] invented a machine that folded and glued flat-bottomed brown paper bags familiar to shoppers today. She obtained 87 US patents that include lid-removing pliers, a numbering machine, a window frame and sash, and variants on rotary engines.<ref>"Knight, Margaret E." Encyclopædia Britannica 2005 Encyclopædia Britannica Premium Svs – article 9125831</ref>

;[[Dishwasher]]
:[[Josephine Cochrane]] developed in 1887 the first commercially successful dishwasher, together with mechanic George Butters.

;Improved [[ironing board]]
:In 1892, [[Sarah Boone]] obtained a patent in the United States for improvements to the ironing board, allowing for better quality ironing for shirt sleeves.<ref name="About">{{cite web | first=Mary | last=Bellis | year=2011 | title=Sarah Boone | work=Inventors | publisher=[[About.com]] | url=http://inventors.about.com/library/inventors/blboone.htm | archive-url=https://archive.today/20130108130549/http://inventors.about.com/library/inventors/blboone.htm | url-status=dead | archive-date=January 8, 2013 | access-date=13 November 2011 }}</ref>

;[[Central heating]]
:In 1919, [[Alice H. Parker|Alice Parker]] invented a system of [[gas]]-powered central heating. While her particular design was never built, it was the first time an inventor had conceived of using [[natural gas]] to heat a personal home, which inspired the future central heating systems.

;Automatic Rotimaker
:In 2008, Pranoti Nagarkar-Israni invented a kitchen robot called [[Rotimatic]], which makes rotis, tortillas, pizza crusts and puris in under a minute. She has obtained 6 patents. The product makes use of artificial intelligence and [[Internet of Things]] to understand user requirements and improve itself after each use.

;[[Correction fluid]]
:[[Bette Nesmith Graham]], the founder of the [[Liquid Paper]] company, invented one of the first forms of correction fluid in 1956.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2018/07/11/obituaries/bette-nesmith-graham-liquid-paper.html|title=Overlooked No More: Bette Nesmith Graham, Who Invented Liquid Paper|work=The New York Times |date=11 July 2018 |access-date=2018-08-20|language=en}}</ref>

;[[House]] [[solar heating]]
:Hungarian-American [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology|MIT]] inventor [[Mária Telkes]] and American architect [[Eleanor Raymond]] created, in 1947, the Dover Sun House, the first house powered by solar energy.

;Wrinkle-free fiber
:Wrinkle-free fiber invented by [[Ruth R. Benerito]] The invention was said to have "saved the cotton industry".

==Cosmetics==
;[[Hot comb]]
:The hot comb was an invention developed in France as a way for women with coarse curly hair to achieve a fine straight look traditionally modeled by historical Egyptian women.<ref>Byrd, Ayana D., Tharps, Lori L. Hair Story: Untangling the Roots of Black Hair in America. New York: St. Martin's Press. 2001 p. 20</ref> However, it was [[Annie Turnbo Malone|Annie Malone]] who first patented this tool, while her protégé and former worker, [[Madam C. J. Walker]], widened the teeth.<ref>The Black Inventor Online Museum, [http://www.blackinventor.com/pages/history.html Blackinventor.com] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110724025153/http://www.blackinventor.com/pages/history.html |date=2011-07-24 }}</ref>

==Vehicle appliances==
;[[Windscreen wiper]]
:[[Mary Anderson (inventor)|Mary Anderson]] is credited for inventing the first functional windscreen wiper in 1903. Two other inventors, Robert Douglass and John Apjohn, also patented windscreen cleaning devices in the same year.

;Car heater
:[[Margaret A. Wilcox]] invented an improved car heater, which directed air from over the engine to warm the chilly toes of aristocratic 19th-century motorists, in 1893. She also invented a combined clothes and dish washer.<ref>Jewell, H. (n.d.). 18 Inventions By Women That Changed The World. Retrieved April 17, 2018, from https://www.buzzfeed.com/hannahjewell/inventions-by-women-that-changed-the-world</ref>{{Unreliable source?|date=July 2019}}

;[[Airplane]] [[muffler]]s
:[[Eldorado Jones]] is credited with inventing a light-weight [[electric iron]], travel size iron board, and airplane mufflers in 1919.

;[[Underwater]] [[telescope]]
:Patented by [[Sarah Mather]] in 1845, this permitted sea-going vessels to survey the depths of the ocean.<ref>Chicago Tribune (Dec 1992) [http://inventors.about.com/od/womeninventors/a/Women-In-History.htm Defying Stereotypes: The Inventive Women Of America] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230220232539/https://www.thoughtco.com/women-in-history-1992650 |date=2023-02-20 }}</ref><ref>US Patent 3995 [https://patents.google.com/patent/US3995 S. P. MATHER. Submarine Telescope and Lamp]</ref> It used a [[camphine]] lamp in a glass globe that was sunk in the water. The device allowed examination of the hull and other details from a person on the deck of a boat.<ref>[http://www.rarenewspapers.com/view/219395 Submarine Telescope in 1843...]</ref> In 1864 Sarah Mather improved her invention to detect [[Submarine warfare#American Civil War|Confederate underwater warships]].<ref name=womscien>Jacquelyn A. Greenblatt (1999) ''Women Scientists and Inventors'' [https://books.google.com/books?id=gcxiamihihYC Page 80] Good Year Books {{ISBN|9781596472631}} Retrieved 2015</ref>

==Computing==
;[[Written]] [[computer]] [[computer program|program]]
:During a nine-month period in 1842–43, [[Ada Lovelace]] translated the memoir of Italian mathematician [[Luigi Menabrea]]. The memoir covered the Analytical Engine. The translation contained Note G which completely detailed a method for calculating [[Bernoulli number]]s using the Analytical Engine. This note is recognized by some historians as the world's first written computer program.<ref>{{citation|author = J. Fuegi and J. Francis| title = Lovelace & Babbage and the creation of the 1843 'notes'|journal = Annals of the History of Computing| volume = 25| issue = 4|date=October–December 2003| doi = 10.1109/MAHC.2003.1253887| pages = 16–26| s2cid = 40077111| url = https://semanticscholar.org/paper/81bbf32d2642a7a8c6b0a867379a4e9e99d872bc}}</ref>

;[[Written]] [[compiler]]
:An early compiler related tool was written by [[Grace Hopper]], in 1952, for the [[A-0 programming language]].<ref>{{ cite web |last=Bruderer|first=Herbert|title=Did Grace Hopper Create the First Compiler? | url=https://cacm.acm.org/blogs/blog-cacm/268001-did-grace-hopper-create-the-first-compiler/fulltext}}</ref> She also helped to popularize the idea of machine-independent programming languages which led to the development of [[COBOL]], one of the first [[high-level programming language]]s.

;[[Written]] ([[programming languages|programming]]) [[languages]]
:Nine coding languages were invented by women: [[ARC (assembly language)|ARC]] [[assembly language]] by [[Kathleen Booth]] in 1950, [[Address (programming language)|Address]] by [[Kateryna Yushchenko (scientist)|Kateryna Yushchenko]] in 1955, [[COBOL]] by [[Grace Hopper]] along with other members of the [[CODASYL|Conference on Data System Languages]] in 1959, [[FORMAC]] by [[Jean Sammet]] in 1962, [[Logo (programming language)|Logo]] by [[Cynthia Solomon]] in 1967 with members of her team, [[CLU (programming language)|CLU]] by [[Barbara Liskov]] in 1974, [[Smalltalk]] by [[Adele Goldberg (computer scientist)|Adele Goldberg]], [[Diana Merry]], and four main other team members at [[Xerox PARC]] in 1980, [[BBC BASIC]] by [[Sophie Wilson]] in 1981, [[Coq (software)|Coq]] by [[Christine Paulin-Mohring]] along with eight development team members of the Lab in 1991. More generally speaking, women have strongly impacted the [[data processing]] domain especially [[women in computing]].

==Mathematics==
;[[Daubechies wavelet]]
:[[Ingrid Daubechies]] introduced the [[Daubechies wavelet]] and contributed to the development of the [[Cohen–Daubechies–Feauveau wavelet|CDF wavelet]], important tools in [[image compression]].

;[[Hearing the shape of a drum|You can't hear the shape of a drum.]]
:In 1966, [[Mark Kac]] asked whether the shape of a drum could be determined by the sound it makes (whether a [[Riemannian manifold]] is determined by the spectrum of its [[Laplace–Beltrami operator]]).  [[John Milnor]] observed that a theorem due to Witt implied the existence of a pair of 16-dimensional tori that have the same spectrum but different shapes. However, the problem in two dimensions remained open until 1992, when [[Carolyn S. Gordon]] with coauthors [[David Webb (mathematician)|Webb]] and Wolpert, constructed a pair of regions in the Euclidean plane that have different shapes but identical eigenvalues (see figure on right).<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.ams.org/publicoutreach/feature-column/fcarc-199706|title=American Mathematical Society|website=www.ams.org|language=en-US|access-date=2018-08-19}}</ref>

;[[Cauchy–Kovalevskaya theorem]]
:In mathematics, the Cauchy–Kowalevski theorem (also written as the Cauchy–Kovalevskaya theorem) is the main local [[existence theorem|existence]] and [[uniqueness theorem]] for analytic [[partial differential equations]] associated with Cauchy initial value problems. A special case was proven by [[Augustin Cauchy]] (1842), and the full result by [[Sophia Kovalevskaya]] (1875).<ref>{{citation|last=von Kowalevsky|first= Sophie |journal = Journal für die Reine und Angewandte Mathematik|volume=80|year=1875|pages=1–32 |url=http://gdz.sub.uni-goettingen.de/dms/load/img/?PPN=PPN243919689_0080&DMDID=DMDLOG_0005|title=Zur Theorie der partiellen Differentialgleichung}}</ref><ref>{{citation|last=Cauchy|first=Augustin|year=1842|title=Mémoire sur l'emploi du calcul des limites dans l'intégration des équations aux dérivées partielles|journal=Comptes Rendus|volume=15|url=https://archive.org/stream/oeuvresdaugusti107caucrich#page/n27/mode/2up}}</ref>

;[[Lagrange, Euler, and Kovalevskaya tops|Kovalevskaya top]]
:In [[classical mechanics]], the [[precession]] of a [[rigid body]] such as a [[Spinning top|top]] under the influence of [[gravity]] is not, in general, an [[integrable problem]]. There are however three (or four) famous cases that are integrable, the '''Euler''', the '''Lagrange''', and the '''Kovalevskaya top'''.<ref name = "Audin">{{citation|last=Audin|first=Michèle|author-link=Michèle Audin|year=1996|title=Spinning Tops: A Course on Integrable Systems|location= New York|publisher= [[Cambridge University Press]] | isbn=9780521779197}}.</ref><ref>[[E. T. Whittaker|Whittaker, E. T.]] (1952). ''[[A Treatise on the Analytical Dynamics of Particles and Rigid Bodies]]''. Cambridge University Press. {{ISBN|9780521358835}}.</ref> The Kovalevskaya top<ref name ="kovalevskaya">{{citation|first=Sofia|last= Kovalevskaya| author-link=Sofia Kovalevskaya |year=1889| title=Sur le problème de la rotation d'un corps solide autour d'un point fixe|journal=[[Acta Mathematica]]|volume= 12|pages=177–232|doi= 10.1007/BF02592182|doi-access=free}}{{in lang|fr}}</ref><ref name = "Perelemov">Perelemov, A. M. (2002). ''Teoret. Mat. Fiz.'', Volume 131, Number 2, pp. 197–205. {{in lang|fr}}</ref> is a special symmetric top with a unique ratio of the moments of inertia which satisfy the relation

: <math> I_1=I_2= 2 I_3,</math>

:That is, two moments of inertia are equal, the third is half as large, and the center of gravity is located in the [[plane (geometry)|plane]] perpendicular to the symmetry axis (parallel to the plane of the two equal points).

;[[QR algorithm]]
:In [[numerical linear algebra]], the '''QR algorithm''' is an [[eigenvalue algorithm]]: that is, a procedure to calculate the [[eigenvalues and eigenvectors]] of a [[Matrix (mathematics)|matrix]]. The QR algorithm was developed in the late 1950s by [[John G. F. Francis]] and by [[Vera N. Kublanovskaya]], working independently.<ref>J.G.F. Francis, "The QR Transformation, I", ''[[The Computer Journal]]'', '''4'''(3), pages 265&ndash;271 (1961, received October 1959).  {{doi|10.1093/comjnl/4.3.265}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |first=J. G. F. |last=Francis |title=The QR Transformation, II |journal=The Computer Journal |volume=4 |issue=4 |pages=332–345 |year=1962 |doi=10.1093/comjnl/4.4.332 |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>
Vera N. Kublanovskaya, "On some algorithms for the solution of the complete eigenvalue problem," ''USSR Computational Mathematics and Mathematical Physics'', vol. 1, no. 3, pages 637–657 (1963, received Feb 1961). Also published in: ''Zhurnal Vychislitel'noi Matematiki i Matematicheskoi Fiziki'', vol.1, no. 4, pages 555–570 (1961).  {{doi|10.1016/0041-5553(63)90168-X}}</ref>  The basic idea is to perform a [[QR decomposition]], writing the matrix as a product of an [[orthogonal matrix]] and an upper [[triangular matrix]], multiply the factors in the reverse order, and iterate.

;[[Navier–Stokes equations]]
:[[Olga Ladyzhenskaya]] provided the first rigorous proofs of the convergence of a [[finite difference method]] for the [[Navier–Stokes equations]]. Ladyzhenskaya was on the shortlist for potential recipients for the 1958 [[Fields Medal]],<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Barany|first1=Michael|title=The Fields Medal should return to its roots|journal=Nature|date=2018|volume=553|issue=7688|pages=271–273|doi=10.1038/d41586-018-00513-8|pmid=29345675|bibcode=2018Natur.553..271B|doi-access=free}}</ref> ultimately awarded to [[Klaus Roth]] and [[René Thom]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.agnesscott.edu/lriddle/women/ladyzhen.htm|title=Olga Alexandrovna Ladyzhenskaya|website=www.agnesscott.edu|access-date=2018-08-21}}</ref>

;[[Braid group|Braid groups are linear]]
:[[Ruth Lawrence| Ruth Lawrence's]]  1990 paper, "Homological representations of the [[Iwahori–Hecke algebra|Hecke algebra]]", in ''[[Communications in Mathematical Physics]]'', introduced, among other things, certain  novel linear representations of the braid group&nbsp;— known as [[Lawrence–Krammer representation]]. In papers published in 2000 and 2001, [[Daan Krammer]] and [[Stephen Bigelow]] established the faithfulness of Lawrence's representation. This result goes by the phrase "[[braid group]]s are linear."<ref>{{citation | last = Bigelow| first= Stephen| author-link=Stephen Bigelow| contribution=The Lawrence–Krammer representation |title= Topology and geometry of manifolds| series=Proc. Sympos. Pure Math.| volume=71| pages= 51–68| year=2003|publisher=Amer. Math. Soc.|location=Providence, RI | mr=2024629| doi= 10.1090/pspum/071/2024629| arxiv=math/0204057| s2cid= 118241294}}</ref>

;[[Recursion theory]]
:[[Rózsa Péter]] was one of the founders of [[recursion theory]], a branch of [[mathematical logic]], of [[computer science]], and of the [[theory of computation]] that originated in the 1930s with the study of [[computable function]]s and [[Turing degree]]s. The field has since expanded to include the study of generalized computability and definability. In these areas, recursion theory overlaps with [[proof theory]] and [[effective descriptive set theory]].<ref>{{citation|last1=Morris|first1=Edie|last2=Harkleroad|first2=Leon|title=Rózsa Péter: recursive function theory's founding mother|journal=The Mathematical Intelligencer|date=1990|volume=12|issue=1|pages=59–64|doi=10.1007/BF03023988|s2cid=120595680}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Rozsa Peter: Founder of Recursive Function Theory|url=http://www.sdsc.edu/ScienceWomen/peter.html|website=Women in Science: A Selection of 16 Contributors|publisher=San Diego Supercomputer Center|access-date=23 August 2017|date=1997}}</ref>

;[[Hilbert's tenth problem]]
:'''Hilbert's tenth problem''' is the tenth on the [[Hilbert's problems|list of mathematical problems]] that the German mathematician [[David Hilbert]] posed in 1900.  It is the challenge to provide a general [[algorithm]] which, for any given [[Diophantine equation]] (a [[polynomial]] equation with [[integer]] coefficients and a finite number of unknowns) can decide whether the equation has a solution with all unknowns taking integer values.

:For example, the Diophantine equation <math>3x^2-2xy-y^2z-7=0</math> has an integer solution: <math>x=1,\ y=2,\ z=-2</math>. By contrast, the Diophantine equation <math>x^2+y^2+1=0</math> has no such solution.

:Hilbert's tenth problem has been solved, and it has a negative answer: such a general algorithm does not exist. This is the result of combined work of [[Martin Davis (mathematician)|Martin Davis]], [[Yuri Matiyasevich]], [[Hilary Putnam]] and [[Julia Robinson]] which spans 21 years, with Yuri Matiyasevich completing the theorem in 1970.<ref>[[S. Barry Cooper]], ''Computability theory'', p. 98</ref> The theorem is now known as [[Matiyasevich's theorem]] or the MRDP theorem.

;[[Optimal design]]
:In the [[design of experiments]], '''optimal designs''' (or '''optimum designs'''<ref>The adjective "optimum" (and not "optimal") "is the slightly older form in English and avoids the construction 'optim(um) + al'—there is no 'optimalis' in Latin" (page x in ''Optimum Experimental Designs, with SAS'', by Atkinson, Donev, and Tobias).</ref>) are a class of [[design of experiments|experimental designs]] that are [[Optimization (mathematics)|optimal]] with respect to some [[statistical theory|statistical]] [[objective function|criterion]]. The creation of this field of statistics has been credited to Danish statistician [[Kirstine Smith]].<ref name=GL2009>{{cite journal |last1=Guttorp |first1=P. |last2=Lindgren |first2=G. |title= Karl Pearson and the Scandinavian school of statistics |journal= International Statistical Review |volume=77 |year=2009 |page=64 |doi=10.1111/j.1751-5823.2009.00069.x|citeseerx=10.1.1.368.8328 |s2cid=121294724 }}</ref><ref name=KS1918>{{cite journal |last=Smith |first=Kirstine |title=On the standard deviations of adjusted and interpolated values of an observed polynomial function and its constants and the guidance they give towards a proper choice of the distribution of observations |journal=Biometrika |volume=12 |issue=1/2 |pages=1–85 |year=1918 |doi=10.2307/2331929|jstor=2331929 |url=https://zenodo.org/record/1431591 }}</ref>

;[[Three-gap theorem]]
:The three-gap theorem states that if one places ''n'' points on a circle, at angles of ''θ'', 2''θ'', 3''θ'' ... from the starting point, then there will be at most three distinct distances between pairs of points in adjacent positions around the circle. When there are three distances, the larger of the three always equals the sum of the other two.<ref name=automatic>{{citation|title=Automatic Sequences: Theory, Applications, Generalizations|first1=Jean-Paul|last1=Allouche|first2=Jeffrey|last2=Shallit|author2-link=Jeffrey Shallit|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2003|isbn=9780521823326|contribution=2.6 The Three-Distance Theorem|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2ZsSUStt96sC&pg=PA53|pages=53–55}}</ref> Unless ''θ'' is a rational multiple of {{pi}}, there will also be at least two distinct distances.

:This result was conjectured by [[Hugo Steinhaus]], and proved in the 1950s by [[Vera T. Sós]], {{ill|János Surányi|hu|Surányi János (matematikus)}}, and [[Stanisław Świerczkowski]]. Its applications include the study of plant growth and musical tuning systems, and the theory of [[Sturmian word]]s.<ref name="sos">{{citation
 | last = Sós | first = V. T. | author-link = Vera T. Sós
 | journal = Ann. Univ. Sci. Budapest, Eötvös Sect. Math.
 | pages = 127–134
 | title = On the distribution mod 1 of the sequence <math>n\alpha</math>
 | volume = 1
 | year = 1958}}</ref>

;[[Noether normalization lemma]]
:The Noether normalization lemma is a result of [[commutative algebra]], introduced by [[Emmy Noether]] in 1926.<ref>{{citation |last=Noether |first=Emmy |author-link=Emmy Noether |year=1926 |title=Der Endlichkeitsatz der Invarianten endlicher linearer Gruppen der Charakteristik ''p'' |language=de |trans-title=The finiteness theorem of the invariants of finite linear groups with the characteristic "p" |url= http://gdz.sub.uni-goettingen.de/no_cache/dms/load/img/?IDDOC=63971 |journal=Nachrichten von der Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften zu Göttingen |pages=28–35 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130308102929/http://gdz.sub.uni-goettingen.de/no_cache/dms/load/img/?IDDOC=63971 |archive-date= 8 March 2013}}</ref> It states that for any [[Field (mathematics)|field]] ''k'', and any [[Finitely generated algebra|finitely generated]] commutative [[algebra over a field|''k''-algebra]] ''A'', there exists a nonnegative integer ''d'' and [[algebraically independent]] elements ''y''<sub>1</sub>, ''y''<sub>2</sub>, ..., ''y''<sub>''d''</sub> in ''A'' such that ''A'' is a finitely generated module over  the polynomial ring ''S'':=''k''[''y''<sub>1</sub>, ''y''<sub>2</sub>, ..., ''y''<sub>''d''</sub>].

:The theorem has a geometric interpretation. Suppose ''A'' is integral. Let ''S'' be the [[coordinate ring]] of the ''d''-dimensional [[affine space]] <math>\mathbb A^d_k</math>, and ''A'' as the coordinate ring of some other ''d''-dimensional [[affine variety]] ''X''.  Then the [[inclusion map]] ''S''&nbsp;→&nbsp;''A'' induces a surjective [[finite morphism]] of [[affine varieties]] <math>X\to \mathbb A^d_k</math>. The conclusion is that any [[affine variety]] is a [[branched covering]] of affine space.

:The [[Noether normalization lemma]] is an important step in proving Hilbert's [[Nullstellensatz]].

;[[Noether's theorem]]
:'''Noether's''' ('''first''')<ref>See also [[Noether's second theorem]].</ref> '''theorem''' states that every [[Differentiable function|differentiable]] [[Symmetry in physics|symmetry]] of the [[action (physics)|action]] of a physical system has a corresponding [[conservation law]]. The theorem was proven by mathematician [[Emmy Noether]] in 1915 and published in 1918,<ref>{{cite journal | author = Noether E | year = 1918 | title = Invariante Variationsprobleme | journal = Nachr. D. König. Gesellsch. D. Wiss. Zu Göttingen, Math-phys. Klasse | volume = 1918 | pages = 235–257 |url= https://eudml.org/doc/59024}}</ref> although a special case was proven by [[Eugène Cosserat|E. Cosserat]] & [[François Cosserat|F. Cosserat]] in 1909.<ref>{{cite book | author = Cosserat E., Cosserat F. |year = 1909 | title = Théorie des corps déformables | publisher = Hermann | place = Paris | url = http://ebooks.library.cornell.edu/cgi/t/text/text-idx?c=math;idno=06420001}}</ref> The action of a physical system is the [[time integral|integral over time]] of a [[Lagrangian mechanics|Lagrangian]] function (which may or may not be an [[integral over space]] of a [[Lagrangian (field theory)|Lagrangian density function]]), from which the system's behavior can be determined by the [[principle of least action]].

:Noether's theorem is used in [[theoretical physics]] and the [[calculus of variations]]. A generalization of the formulations on [[constants of motion]] in Lagrangian and [[Hamiltonian mechanics]] (developed in 1788 and 1833, respectively), it does not apply to systems that cannot be modeled with a Lagrangian alone (e.g. systems with a [[Lagrangian mechanics#Extensions to include non-conservative forces|Rayleigh dissipation function]]). In particular, [[dissipative]] systems with [[Continuous symmetry|continuous symmetries]] need not have a corresponding conservation law.

:Noether's theorem can be stated informally

{{blockquote|If a system has a continuous symmetry property, then there are corresponding quantities whose values are conserved in time.<ref>{{cite book |author=Thompson, W.J. |title=Angular Momentum: an illustrated guide to rotational symmetries for physical systems |publisher=Wiley |year=1994 |isbn=978-0-471-55264-2 |volume=1 |page=5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=O25fXV4z0B0C&pg=PA5}}</ref>}}

;[[Noether's second theorem]]
:In [[mathematics]] and [[theoretical physics]], '''Noether's second theorem''' relates symmetries of an [[action (physics)|action]] [[functional (mathematics)|functional]] with a system of [[differential equation]]s.<ref>{{Citation  |last=Noether  |first=Emmy  |year=1918  |title=Invariante Variationsprobleme  |url=https://de.wikisource.org/wiki/Invariante_Variationsprobleme  |journal=Nachr. D. König. Gesellsch. D. Wiss. Zu Göttingen, Math-phys. Klasse  |volume=1918  |pages=235–257 }}
:Translated in {{cite journal  |last1=Noether  |first1=Emmy  |year=1971  |title=Invariant variation problems |journal=[[Transport Theory and Statistical Physics]]  |volume=1  |issue=3  |pages=186–207  |arxiv=physics/0503066  |bibcode=1971TTSP....1..186N  |doi=10.1080/00411457108231446|s2cid=119019843 |ref=none}}</ref>  The action ''S'' of a physical system is an [[integral]] of a so-called [[Lagrangian mechanics|Lagrangian]] function ''L'', from which the system's behavior can be determined by the [[principle of least action]].

;[[Isomorphism theorems]]
:In [[mathematics]], specifically [[abstract algebra]], the '''isomorphism theorems''' are three [[theorem]]s that describe the relationship between [[quotient]]s, [[homomorphism]]s, and [[subobject]]s.  Versions of the theorems exist for [[group (mathematics)|groups]], [[ring (mathematics)|rings]], [[vector space]]s, [[module (mathematics)|modules]], [[Lie algebra]]s, and various other [[algebraic structure]]s.  In [[universal algebra]], the isomorphism theorems can be generalized to the context of algebras and congruences.

:The isomorphism theorems were formulated in some generality for homomorphisms of modules by [[Emmy Noether]] in her paper ''Abstrakter Aufbau der Idealtheorie in algebraischen Zahl- und Funktionenkörpern'' which was published in 1927 in [[Mathematische Annalen]].  Less general versions of these theorems can be found in work of [[Richard Dedekind]] and previous papers by Noether.

:Three years later, [[Bartel Leendert van der Waerden|B.L. van der Waerden]] published his influential ''Algebra,'' the first [[abstract algebra]] textbook that took the [[Group (mathematics)|groups]]-[[Ring (mathematics)|rings]]-[[Field (mathematics)|fields]] approach to the subject. Van der Waerden credited lectures by Noether on [[group theory]] and [[Emil Artin]] on algebra, as well as a seminar conducted by Artin, [[Wilhelm Blaschke]], [[Otto Schreier]], and van der Waerden himself on [[ideal (ring theory)|ideals]] as the main references. The three isomorphism theorems, called ''homomorphism theorem'', and ''two laws of isomorphism'' when applied to groups, appear explicitly.

;[[Lasker–Noether theorem]]
:In [[mathematics]], the '''Lasker–Noether theorem''' states that every [[Noetherian ring]] is a '''Lasker ring''', which means that every ideal can be decomposed as an intersection, called '''primary decomposition''', of finitely many ''[[primary ideal]]s'' (which are related to, but not quite the same as, powers of [[prime ideal]]s).  The theorem was first proven by {{harvs|txt|authorlink=Emanuel Lasker|first=Emanuel|last= Lasker|year= 1905}} for the special case of [[polynomial ring]]s and convergent [[power series]] rings, and was proven in its full generality by {{harvs|txt|authorlink=Emmy Noether|first=Emmy |last=Noether|year= 1921}}.

:The Lasker–Noether theorem is an extension of the [[fundamental theorem of arithmetic]], and more generally the [[fundamental theorem of finitely generated abelian groups]] to all Noetherian rings. The Lasker–Noether theorem plays an important role in [[algebraic geometry]], by asserting that every [[algebraic set]] may be uniquely decomposed into a finite union of [[irreducible component]]s.

;[[Albert–Brauer–Hasse–Noether theorem]]
:In [[algebraic number theory]], the '''Albert–Brauer–Hasse–Noether theorem''' states that a [[central simple algebra]] over an [[algebraic number field]] ''K'' which splits over every [[local field|completion]] ''K''<sub>''v''</sub> is a [[matrix ring|matrix algebra]] over ''K''. The theorem is an example of a [[local-global principle]] in [[algebraic number theory]] and leads to a complete description of finite-dimensional [[division algebras]] over algebraic number fields in terms of their [[Hasse invariant of an algebra|local invariants]]. It was proved independently by [[Richard Brauer]], [[Helmut Hasse]], and [[Emmy Noether]] and by [[Abraham Adrian Albert]].

;The [[Earthquake map|earthquake]] flow on [[Teichmüller space]] is [[Ergodicity|ergodic]]
:[[Fields medal]]ist [[Maryam Mirzakhani]] proved  the long-standing conjecture that [[William Thurston]]'s [[Earthquake map|earthquake]] flow on [[Teichmüller space]] is [[Ergodicity|ergodic]].

==Wireless transmission==
;[[Torpedo]]es [[Radio guidance]] device
:Austrian-American Hollywood actress [[Hedy Lamarr]], together with musician and author [[George Antheil]], developed a mechanism for radio guidance system for Allied [[torpedo]]es which used [[spread spectrum]] and [[frequency hopping]] technology to defeat the threat of [[Radio jamming|jamming]] by the [[Axis powers]].<ref name="EFF1997">{{cite press release|title = Movie Legend Hedy Lamarr to be Given Special Award at EFF's Sixth Annual Pioneer Awards|publisher = Electronic Frontier Foundation|date = 11 March 1997|url = http://w2.eff.org/awards/pioneer/1997.php|access-date = 1 February 2014|url-status = dead|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20071016063043/http://w2.eff.org/awards/pioneer/1997.php|archive-date = 16 October 2007}}</ref> Though the [[US Navy]] did not adopt [[frequency-hopping]] until the 1960s, the principles of it are now incorporated into modern [[Wi-Fi]], [[CDMA]] and [[Bluetooth]] technology.<ref>{{ cite web |last=Rothman|first=Tony|title=Random Paths to Frequency Hopping | url=https://www.americanscientist.org/article/random-paths-to-frequency-hopping}}</ref>

==Food and food appliances==
;[[Chocolate-chip cookies]]
:Invented by [[Ruth Graves Wakefield]] in 1938.

;[[Pizza saver]]
:Patented in 1985 by Carmela Vitale of [[Dix Hills, New York]].

;[[Mint chocolate chip]]
:Invented by Marilyn Ricketts in 1973.

==Biology==
;[[DNA structure]]
:[[Rosalind Franklin]] was a British [[molecular biologist]] who was [[instrumental]] in the discovery of the structure of deoxyribonucleic acid ([[DNA]]) in 1951. At King's College London where she applied [[X-ray diffraction]] to the study of [[Organic matter|biological materials]], she performed several [[X-ray]] [[radiographs]] of the DNA.

;[[Sex chromosome]]s
:[[Nettie Stevens|Nettie Maria Stevens]] is credited with the discovery of sex chromosomes.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Brush|first=Stephen G.|date=June 1978|title=Nettie M. Stevens and the Discovery of Sex Determination by Chromosomes|url=https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/10.1086/352001|journal=Isis|language=en|volume=69|issue=2|pages=163–172|doi=10.1086/352001|issn=0021-1753|pmid=389882|s2cid=1919033}}</ref>
;
;[[Cori Cycle|The Cori cycle (lactic acid cycle)]]
:[[Gerty Cori]], together with [[Carl Ferdinand Cori]], discovered the Cori cycle, the metabolic pathway in which [[lactic acid|lactate]] produced by anaerobic [[glycolysis]] in the muscles moves to the liver and is converted to glucose, which then returns to the muscles and is metabolized back to lactate.<ref>Nelson, David L., & Cox, Michael M. (2005) ''Lehninger Principles of Biochemistry Fourth Edition''. New York: W.H. Freeman and Company, p. 543.</ref>

;[[Radioimmunoassay]]  
:[[Rosalyn Sussman Yalow]] developed the radioimmunoassay, an [[immunoassay]] that uses [[radioactive tracer|radiolabeled]] molecules in a stepwise formation of [[immune complex]]es at the [[Bronx Veterans Administration Hospital|Veterans Administration Hospital in the Bronx]], New York. This technique is used to accurately measure levels of substances such as hormones which are found in small concentrations in the body.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medicine/laureates/1977/yalow-facts.html|title=Rosalyn Yalow - Facts|website=www.nobelprize.org|access-date=2018-08-07}}</ref>

;[[Transposable elements]]
:[[Barbara McClintock]] discovered transposable elements (also known as transposons and jumping genes), [[DNA sequences]] which change their position within the genome. Transposons make up a large fraction of the DNA in eukaryotic cells (44% if the human genome<ref>{{cite journal | author = Mills, R.E., Bennett, E.A., Iskow, R.C. and Devine, S.E. | year =  2007 | title = Which transposable elements are active in the human genome? | journal = Trends in Genetics | volume = 23 | issue = 4 | pages = 183–191 | doi = 10.1016/j.tig.2007.02.006| pmid =  17331616 }}</ref> and 90% of the maize genome<ref>{{cite journal  |vauthors=SanMiguel P, Tikhonov A, Jin YK |display-authors=etal |title=Nested retrotransposons in the intergenic regions of the maize genome |journal=Science |volume=274 |issue=5288 |pages=765–8 |date=November 1996 |pmid=8864112 |doi=10.1126/science.274.5288.765|bibcode=1996Sci...274..765S |s2cid=33433647 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Jiao|first1=Yinping|last2=Peluso|first2=Paul|last3=Shi|first3=Jinghua|last4=Liang|first4=Tiffany|last5=Stitzer|first5=Michelle C.|last6=Wang|first6=Bo|last7=Campbell|first7=Michael S.|last8=Stein|first8=Joshua C.|last9=Wei|first9=Xuehong|date=2017-06-22|title=Improved maize reference genome with single-molecule technologies|journal=Nature|language=en|volume=546|issue=7659|pages=524–527|doi=10.1038/nature22971|pmid=28605751|issn=0028-0836|bibcode=2017Natur.546..524J|pmc=7052699}}</ref>) and play an important role in genome function and evolution.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Bucher E, Reinders J, Mirouze M |date=Nov 2012 |title=Epigenetic control of transposon transcription and mobility in ''Arabidopsis'' |journal=Current Opinion in Plant Biology |volume=15 |issue=5 |pages=503–10 |pmid=22940592 |doi=10.1016/j.pbi.2012.08.006}}</ref> In [[Stichotrich|''Oxytricha'']], which has a unique genetic system, these elements play a critical role in development.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2009/05/090520140408.htm |title='Junk' DNA Has Important Role, Researchers Find |work=Science Daily |date=21 May 2009}}</ref>

;[[Nerve growth factor]]
:[[Rita Levi-Montalcini]] and colleague [[Stanley Cohen (biochemist)|Stanley Cohen]] discovered nerve growth factor, a [[neurotrophic factor]] and [[neuropeptide]] primarily involved in the regulation of growth, maintenance, proliferation, and survival of certain target [[neurons]]. This discovery was recognized with the [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine]] in 1986.<ref>{{cite web|title=The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1986|url=https://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medicine/laureates/1986/|publisher=The Nobel Foundation|access-date=1 January 2013}}</ref>

;[[Gap gene]]s
:[[Christiane Nüsslein-Volhard]] and colleague [[Eric Wieschaus]] were the first to describe gap genes, genes involved in the development of [[segmentation (biology)|segmentation]] in [[Drosophila embryogenesis|''Drosophila'' embryogenesis]]. This work was foundational to our understanding of the [[genetics|genetic]] control of [[embryo]]nic [[developmental biology|development]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medicine/laureates/1995/press.html|title=Physiology or Medicine 1995 - Press Release|website=www.nobelprize.org|access-date=2018-08-08}}</ref>

;[[Telomerase]]
:[[Elizabeth Blackburn]], [[Carol W. Greider]], and [[Jack W. Szostak]] co-discovered the enzyme telomerase, which replenishes the [[telomere]], a structure found at the ends of [[chromosomes]] which protects the [[DNA]] in the rest of the chromosome from damage.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medicine/laureates/2009/press.html|title=The 2009 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine - Press Release|website=www.nobelprize.org|access-date=2018-08-08}}</ref>

;[[File:Autocorrelation_image.jpg|thumb|[[grid cell]] firing rate across space]][[Grid cells]]
:[[May-Britt Moser]], together with [[Edvard Moser]] and their students Torkel Hafting, Marianne Fyhn and Sturla Molden, discovered grid cells, cells which contribute to the brain's positioning and navigation system. The grid cells of a freely moving animal fire when the animal is near the vertices of a hexagonal grid in the environment.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medicine/laureates/2014/press.html|title=The 2014 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine - Press Release|website=www.nobelprize.org|access-date=2018-08-08}}</ref>

;[[CRISPR gene editing]]
:[[CRISPR]]/[[cas9]] invented by [[Jennifer Anne Doudna]] and [[Emmanuelle Charpentier]]

==Psychology==
;[[Myers–Briggs Type Indicator|Myers–Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI)]]
:[[Katharine Cook Briggs]] and her daughter [[Isabel Briggs Myers]] invented this psychological test, where participants answer an introspective self-report questionnaire. The result takes the form of 16 types, indicating the psychological preferences of the participant.

==See also==
* [[Women in science]]
* [[Women's history]]
* [[List of women's firsts]]
* [[History of women in engineering]]

==References==
<references />

{{Science and technology studies}}
{{Gender studies}}

[[Category:Women and science|Inventions]]
[[Category:Lists of inventions or discoveries|Women]]
[[Category:Women-related lists|Inventions]]