View source for List of Indian inventions and discoveries

{{Short description|Indian inventions}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2022}}
{{Use Indian English|date=March 2014}}
{{Science and technology in India}}

This '''list of Indian inventions and discoveries''' details the inventions, scientific discoveries and contributions of India, including those from the historic [[Indian subcontinent]] and the modern-day [[republic of India]]. It draws from the whole [[culture of India|cultural]] and [[history of Indian science and technology|technological 
of India|cartography]], [[History of metallurgy in the Indian subcontinent|metallurgy]], [[Indian logic|logic]], [[Indian mathematics|mathematics]], [[History of measurement systems in India|metrology]] and [[Mining in India|mineralogy]] were among the branches of study pursued by [[:Category:Indian academics|its scholars]].<ref>{{citation |first=Meera |last=Nanda |title=Hindutva's science envy |url=http://www.frontline.in/science-and-technology/hindutvas-science-envy/article9049883.ece |newspaper=Frontline |date=16 September 2016 |access-date=14 October 2016}}</ref> During recent times [[science and technology in the Republic of India]] has also focused on [[Automobile industry in India|automobile engineering]], [[Information technology in India|information technology]], [[Communications in India|communications]] as well as research into [[Indian Space Research Organisation|space]] and [[Indian Antarctic Programme|polar]] technology.

For the purpose of this list, the [[invention]]s are regarded as technological firsts developed within territory of India, as such does not include foreign technologies which India acquired through contact or any Indian origin living in foreign country doing any breakthroughs in foreign land. It also does not include not a new idea, indigenous alternatives, low-cost alternatives, technologies or discoveries developed elsewhere and later invented separately in India, nor inventions by Indian emigres or [[Indian diaspora]] in other places. Changes in minor concepts of design or style and artistic innovations do not appear in the lists.

== Ancient India ==
{{See also|History of science and technology in the Indian subcontinent|List of inventions and discoveries of the Indus Valley Civilisation|Timeline of Indian innovation}}

=== Agriculture ===
* [[Indigo|Indigo dye]] – Indigo, a blue pigment and a dye, was used in India, which was also the earliest major centre for its production and processing.<ref name=k&c>Kriger & Connah (2006), page 120</ref> The ''Indigofera tinctoria'' variety of Indigo was domesticated in India.<ref name=k&c/> Indigo, used as a dye, made its way to the [[ancient Greece|Greeks]] and the [[Ancient Rome|Romans]] via various trade routes, and was valued as a luxury product.<ref name=k&c/>
* [[Jute|Jute cultivation]] – Jute has been cultivated in India since ancient times.<ref name=ebjute/> Raw jute was exported to the [[western world]], where it was used to make [[rope]]s and cordage.<ref name=ebjute>Encyclopædia Britannica (2008). ''jute''.</ref> The Indian jute industry, in turn, was modernised during the British Raj in India.<ref name=ebjute/> The region of [[Bengal]] was the major centre for Jute cultivation, and remained so before the modernisation of India's jute industry in 1855, when [[Kolkata]] became a centre for jute processing in India.<ref name=ebjute/>
* [[Sugar]] – Sugarcane was originally from tropical [[South Asia]] and [[Southeast Asia]],<ref name=Kiple/> with different species originating in India, and ''S. edule'' and ''S. officinarum'' from [[New Guinea]].<ref name=Kiple>{{cite web |url=http://www.cambridge.org/us/books/kiple/sugar.htm|title=World history of Food – Sugar|author=Kenneth F.Kiple & Kriemhild Conee Ornelas|publisher=Cambridge University Press|access-date=9 January 2012}}</ref> The process of producing crystallised sugar from sugar cane, in India, dates to at least the beginning of the common era, with 1st century CE Greek and Roman authors writing on Indian sugar.<ref>Book Two of Dioscorides' ''Materia Medica''. The book is downloadable from links at the Wikipedia [[Dioscorides]] page.</ref><ref>{{Cite book |url=http://archive.org/details/de-materia-medica |title=de materia medica}}</ref> The process was soon transmitted to China with travelling Buddhist monks.<ref name=Kieschnick1>Kieschnick (2003)</ref> Chinese documents confirm at least two missions to India, initiated in 647 CE, for obtaining technology for sugar-refining.<ref name=Kieschnick11>Kieschnick (2003), page 258</ref> Each mission returned with results on refining sugar.<ref name=Kieschnick11/>

=== Construction, civil engineering and architecture ===
[[File:Sanchi2.jpg|thumb|The Great Stupa at [[Sanchi]] (4th–1st century BCE). The dome shaped stupa was used in India as a commemorative monument associated with storing sacred relics.]]
[[File:Hanuman and Ravana in Tholu Bommalata, the shadow puppet tradition of Andhra Pradesh, India.JPG|thumb|[[Hanuman]] and [[Ravana]] in ''Tolu Bommalata'', the [[shadow puppet]] tradition of [[Andhra Pradesh]], India]]
* [[Stepwell]] – While the early history of stepwells is poorly understood, water structures in Western India were their likely predecessor.<ref name=Livingston&Bach20>Livingston & Beach, 19</ref> The three features of stepwells in the subcontinent are evident from one particular site, abandoned by 2500&nbsp;BCE, which combines a bathing pool, steps leading down to water, and figures of some religious importance into one structure.<ref name=Livingston&Bach20/>
* [[Stupa]] – The origin of the stupa can be traced to 3rd-century BCE India.<ref name=Ency>Encyclopædia Britannica (2008). ''Pagoda''.</ref> It was used as a commemorative monument associated with storing sacred relics.<ref name=Ency/> The stupa architecture was adopted in [[Southeast Asia|Southeast]] and [[East Asia]], where it evolved into the [[pagoda]], a Buddhist monument used for enshrining sacred relics.<ref name=Ency/>
* Residential [[University]] – [[Nalanda]] ({{transliteration|sa|ISO|Nālandā}}, {{IPA|sa|naːlən̪d̪aː|pron}}) was a renowned ''[[mahavihara]]'' ([[Buddhism|Buddhist]] monastic university) in ancient [[Magadha (Mahajanapada)|Magadha]] (modern-day [[Bihar]]), eastern [[India]].{{sfn|Asher|2015|pp=1–5}}{{sfnp|Kumar|2018}}<ref name="nalandagoi">{{cite web |date=15 June 2023 |title=History {{!}} District Nalanda, Government of Bihar {{!}} India |url=https://nalanda.nic.in/en/history/ |access-date=2 June 2023 |website=nalanda.nic.in}}</ref> Considered by historians to be the world's first residential university<ref>{{cite web |title=UNESCO Nominations |url=https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/nominations/1502.pdf |website=UNESCO |access-date=2 June 2023}}</ref> and among the greatest centres of learning in the ancient world, it was located near the city of Rajagriha (now [[Rajgir]]) and about {{convert|90|km|mi|0}} southeast of Pataliputra (now [[Patna]]) and operated from 427 until 1197 CE.{{sfn|Pinkney|2015|pp=111–149}}

=== Finance and banking ===
* [[Cheque|Cheque/Check]] – There is early evidence of using cheques/checks. In India, during the [[Maurya Empire]] (from 321 to 185 BC), a commercial instrument called the "Adesha" was in use, which was an order on a banker desiring him to pay the money of the note to a third person (now known as or referred to as a "Negotiable Instrument").<ref>{{Cite web |title=Reserve Bank of India – Publications |url=https://m.rbi.org.in/Scripts/PublicationsView.aspx?id=155}}</ref>

=== Games ===
{{Main|Traditional games of South Asia}}
* [[Atya-patya]] – This variation of tag was being played as early as 100 CE, and was possibly invented by farmers as a way of practicing driving away birds. It was later used as a form of military training in [[Kerala]] in close relation to the martial art of [[kalaripayattu]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Arasu |first=S. T. |date=2020-07-04 |title=Galah Panjang and its Indian roots |url=https://www.gosports.com.my/news/galah-panjang-and-its-indian-roots/ |access-date=2023-08-06 |website=On the sport. Be part of it }}</ref>
* [[Badminton]] – The game may have originally developed among expatriate officers in [[British India]]<ref>{{Cite web |title=Badminton Alberta |url=https://www.badmintonalberta.ca/cookies/?returnurl=%2fpage%2f1107%2fHistory-of-the-Game |access-date=2022-07-13 |website=www.badmintonalberta.ca}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Biswas |first=Sudipta |date=2022-01-04 |title=Poona: Where Badminton Was Invented |url=https://www.livehistoryindia.com/story/places/poona-where-badminton-was-invented |access-date=2022-07-13 |website=www.livehistoryindia.com }}</ref>
* [[Blindfold chess]] – [[List of games that Buddha would not play|Games prohibited by Buddha]] includes a variant of ashtapada game played on imaginary boards. ''Akasam astapadam'' was an ''ashtapada'' variant played with no board, literally "astapadam played in the sky". A correspondent in the [[American Chess Bulletin]] identifies this as likely the earliest literary mention of a blindfold chess variant.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=CqJJAAAAYAAJ&dq=brahmajala+sutta+games&pg=RA2-PA104 American Chess Bulletin, vol. 13–15, Hartwig Cassell & Hermann Helms, eds.]</ref>
* [[Carrom]] – The game of carrom originated in [[India]].<ref>History of Physical Education, p.209, SR Tiwari, APH Publishing</ref> One carrom board with its surface made of glass is still available in one of the palaces in [[Patiala, India]].<ref>{{cite web|title=All India Carrom Federation|url=http://www.indiancarrom.com/brief-of-the-game.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150216055759/http://indiancarrom.com/brief-of-the-game.htm|archive-date=16 February 2015|access-date=2 February 2015}}</ref> It became very popular among the masses after [[World War I]]. State-level competitions were being held in the different states of India during the early part of the twentieth century. Serious carrom tournaments may have begun in [[Sri Lanka]] in 1935 but by 1958, both India and Sri Lanka had formed official federations of carrom clubs, sponsoring tournaments and awarding prizes.<ref>{{cite web|title=Carrom.org|url=http://www.carrom.org/game/?subcat=10/|access-date=2 February 2015|archive-date=1 February 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150201211242/http://www.carrom.org/game/?subcat=10%2F|url-status=dead}}</ref>
* [[Chaturanga]] – The precursor of [[chess]] originated in India during the [[Gupta dynasty]] (c. 280{{ndash}}550 CE).<ref name=Murray1913>Murray (1913)</ref><ref name=Forbes1860>Forbes (1860)</ref><ref name=JonesAj121>Jones, William (1807). "On the Indian Game of Chess". pages 323{{ndash}}333</ref><ref name=LindeGM>Linde, Antonius (1981)</ref> Both the [[Persian people|Persians]] and [[Arab]]s ascribe the origins of the game of Chess to the Indians.<ref name=JonesAj121/><ref name=Wilkinson>Wilkinson, Charles K (May 1943)</ref><ref name=Bird48>Bird (1893), page 63</ref> The words for "chess" in [[Old Persian]] and [[Arabic]] are ''chatrang'' and ''[[shatranj]]'' respectively – terms derived from ''[[chaturanga|caturaṅga]]'' in [[Sanskrit]],<ref name=Whyld>Hooper & Whyld (1992), page 74</ref><ref name=SBI106>Sapra, Rahul (2000). "Sports in India". Students' Britannica India (Vol. 6). Mumbai: Popular Prakashan. p. 106. {{ISBN|0-85229-762-9}}.</ref> which literally means an ''army of four divisions'' or ''four corps''.<ref name=Meri>Meri (2005), page 148</ref><ref name=Basham208>Basham (2001), page 208</ref> Chess spread throughout the world and many variants of the game soon began taking shape.<ref name=Britannica1>Encyclopædia Britannica (2002). ''Chess: Ancient precursors and related games''.</ref> This game was introduced to the [[Near East]] from India and became a part of the princely or courtly education of [[Persian Empire|Persian]] nobility.<ref name=Meri/> [[Buddhist]] pilgrims, [[Silk Road]] traders and others carried it to the [[Far East]] where it was transformed and assimilated into a game often played on the intersection of the lines of the board rather than within the squares.<ref name=Britannica1/> Chaturanga reached Europe through Persia, the [[Byzantine empire]] and the expanding [[Arabian]] empire.<ref name=Basham208/><ref name=ChessEurope>Encyclopædia Britannica (2007). ''Chess: Introduction to Europe''.</ref> [[Muslims]] carried Shatranj to [[North Africa]], [[Sicily]], and Spain by the 10th century where it took its final modern form of chess.<ref name=Britannica1/>
* [[Kabaddi]] – The game of ''kabaddi'' originated in India during prehistory.<ref name=Alter88>Alter, page 88</ref> Suggestions on how it evolved into the modern form range from wrestling exercises, military drills, and collective self-defence but most authorities agree that the game existed in some form or the other in India during the period between 1500 and 400&nbsp;BCE.<ref name=Alter88/>
* [[Kalaripayattu]] – One of the world's oldest form of martial arts is [[Kalaripayattu]] that developed in the southwest state of [[Kerala]] in India.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Meera |first1=Sethumadhavan |last2=Vinodan |first2=A. |title=Attitude towards alternative medicinal practices in wellness tourism market |journal=Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Insights |date=23 September 2019 |volume=2 |issue=3 |pages=278–295 |doi=10.1108/JHTI-06-2018-0037 }}</ref> It is believed to be the oldest surviving martial art in India, with a history spanning over 3,000 years.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Radhakrishnan |first=S. Anil |date=2021-01-10 |title=Kalaripayattu academy braces for action |work=The Hindu |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/Thiruvananthapuram/kalaripayattu-academy-braces-for-action/article33539155.ece |access-date=2021-05-17 }}</ref>
* [[Kho-kho]] – This is one of the oldest variations of [[Tag (game)|tag]] in the world, having been played since as early as the fourth century BCE.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-05-29 |title=The Evolution of Kho Kho Mats in India: A Historical Overview |url=https://www.news18.com/sports/the-evolution-of-kho-kho-mats-in-india-a-historical-overview-7947775.html |access-date=2023-08-06 |website=News18 }}</ref>
* [[Ludo (board game)|Ludo]] – [[Pachisi]] originated in India by the 6th century.<ref name=EncartaP>MSN Encarta (2008). [https://web.archive.org/web/20150115060615/http://encarta.co.uk/encyclopedia_781530306/Pachisi.html ''Pachisi''].</ref> The earliest evidence of this game in India is the depiction of boards on the caves of Ajanta.<ref name=EncartaP/> A variant of this game, called Ludo, made its way to England during the British Raj.<ref name=EncartaP/>
* [[Mallakhamba]] – It is a traditional sport, originating from the [[Indian subcontinent]], in which a [[gymnast]] performs aerial [[yoga]] or [[gymnastic]] postures and [[wrestling]] grips in concert with a vertical stationary or hanging wooden pole, cane, or rope.The earliest literary known mention of Mallakhamb is in the 1135 CE Sanskrit classic ''[[Manasollasa]]'', written by [[Someshvara III]]. It has been thought to be the ancestor of [[Pole dance|Pole Dancing]].
* [[Nuntaa (game)|Nuntaa]], also known as Kutkute.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://justnewsbd.com/details_archive.php?jnewsbd=MTIwNjM= |script-title=bn:মজার খেলা নুনতা |language=bn |date=19 September 2012 |access-date=2013-05-22 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130623164335/http://justnewsbd.com/details_archive.php?jnewsbd=MTIwNjM= |archive-date=23 June 2013 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
* [[Seven stones]] – An Indian subcontinent game also called Pitthu is played in rural areas has its origins in the Indus Valley Civilization.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Terra cotta discs {{!}} Harappa|url=https://www.harappa.com/slide/terra-cotta-discs|access-date=2021-03-07|website=harappa.com}}</ref>
* [[Snakes and ladders]] – Vaikunta pali Snakes and ladders originated in India as a game based on morality.<ref name=Augustyn>Augustyn, pages 27{{ndash}}28</ref> During British rule of India, this game made its way to England, and was eventually introduced in the United States of America by game-pioneer [[Milton Bradley]] in 1943.<ref name=Augustyn/>
* [[Suit (cards)|Suits]] game: Kridapatram is an early [[Suit (cards)|suits]] game, made of painted rags, invented in Ancient India. The term ''kridapatram'' literally means "painted rags for playing."<ref name="McManus">{{cite book|author=James McManus|title=Cowboys Full: The Story of Poker|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=drHJelHmhsgC&pg=PA34|date=27 October 2009|publisher=Macmillan|isbn=978-0-374-29924-8|page=34}}</ref><ref>{{Citation | last = Carlisle| first = Rodney| title = Encyclopedia of Play in Today's Society| publisher = [[SAGE Publications]]| year = 2009| page = 31| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=7DiB3z2fBpAC&pg=PA31| isbn = 978-1-4129-6670-2}}</ref><ref>{{Citation | last = Quackenbos| title = Illustrated History of Ancient Literature, Oriental and Classical| publisher = READ BOOKS| year = 2010| page = 60| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=GzgsRtvtp_gC&pg=PA60| isbn = 978-1-4455-7978-8}}</ref><ref>{{Citation | last = Kapoor| first = Subodh| title = The Indian encyclopaedia: biographical, historical, religious, administrative, ethnological, commercial and scientific – Vol 6| publisher = Genesis Publishing Pvt Ltd| year = 2002| page = 1786| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=q5ZM0nZXZEkC&pg=PA1786| isbn = 978-81-7755-257-7}}</ref><ref name="Townsend">{{Citation | last = Townsend| first = George| title = The manual of dates: a dictionary of reference to all the most important events in the history of mankind to be found in authentic records| publisher = Routledge, Warne, & Routledge| year = 1862| page = 184| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=HKQZAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA184}}</ref> Paper playing cards first appeared in East Asia during the 9th century.<ref name="McManus"/><ref>{{Cite book | last =Needham | first =Joseph | author-link =Joseph Needham | year =2004 | title =Science & Civilisation in China | publisher =Cambridge University Press | volume =V:1 | isbn =978-0-521-05802-5|pages=131{{ndash}}132}}</ref> The medieval Indian game of ''[[ganjifa]]'', or playing cards, is first recorded in the 16th century.<ref name="Schwartz">{{cite book|author=David G. Schwartz|title=Roll the bones: the history of gambling|date=5 October 2006|publisher=Gotham Books|isbn=978-1-59240-208-3|url=https://archive.org/details/rollboneshistory00schw}}</ref>
* [[Table tennis]] – It has been suggested that makeshift versions of the game were developed by British military officers in [[British India|India]] around the 1860s or 1870s, who brought it back with them.<ref>[https://www.washingtonpost.com/sports/table-tennis-pingpong-or-whiff-whaff-victorian-parlor-game-returns-home-for-london-olympics/2012/07/27/gJQAXnpmDX_story.html WashingtonPost.com.] Accessed 2 August 2012. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190103100431/https://www.washingtonpost.com/sports/table-tennis-pingpong-or-whiff-whaff-victorian-parlor-game-returns-home-for-london-olympics/2012/07/27/gJQAXnpmDX_story.html|date=3 January 2019}}</ref>
* [[Vajra-mushti]] – refers to a wrestling where [[knuckleduster]] like weapon is employed.The first literary mention of vajra-musti comes from the ''Manasollasa'' of the [[Chalukya]] king Someswara III (1124–1138), although it has been conjectured to have existed since as early as the [[Maurya Empire|Maurya dynasty]]<ref>{{Cite web |title=Vajra-musti Indian Sport |url=https://www.topendsports.com/sport/list/vajramushti.htm |access-date=2022-07-21 |website=www.topendsports.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Kesting |first=Stephan |date=2012-03-13 |title=The Ancient Vale Tudo of India: Vajramushti |url=https://www.grapplearts.com/the-ancient-vale-tudo-of-india-vajramushti/ |access-date=2022-07-21 |website=Grapplearts }}</ref>

=== Textile and material production ===
* [[Button (clothing)|Button]] – Ornamental buttons—made from [[seashell]]—were used in the [[Indus Valley civilization]] for ornamental purposes by 2000&nbsp;BCE.<ref name=Hesse&Hesse>Hesse, Rayner W. & Hesse, Rayner W. Jr. (2007). ''Jewelrymaking Through History: An Encyclopedia''. Greenwood Publishing Group. 35. {{ISBN|0-313-33507-9}}.</ref> Some buttons were carved into geometric shapes and had holes pierced into them so that they could be attached to clothing by using a thread.<ref name=Hesse&Hesse/> Ian McNeil (1990) holds that: "The button, in fact, was originally used more as an ornament than as a fastening, the earliest known being found at Mohenjo-daro in the [[Indus Valley]]. It is made of a curved shell and about 5000 years old."<ref>McNeil, Ian (1990). ''An encyclopaedia of the history of technology''. Taylor & Francis. 852. {{ISBN|0-415-01306-2}}.</ref>
[[File:Nepali charka in action.jpg|thumb|A [[w:Demographics of Nepal|Nepali]] [[w:Spinning wheel|Charkha]] in action]]
* [[Calico (textile)|Calico]] – Calico had originated in the subcontinent by the 11th century and found mention in Indian literature, by the 12th-century writer Hemachandra. He has mentioned calico fabric prints done in a lotus design.<ref name=eb-calico>Encyclopædia Britannica (2008). ''calico''</ref> The Indian textile merchants traded in calico with the Africans by the 15th century and calico fabrics from [[Gujarat]] appeared in [[Egypt]].<ref name=eb-calico/> Trade with Europe followed from the 17th century onward.<ref name=eb-calico/> Within India, calico originated in [[Kozhikode]].<ref name=eb-calico/>
* [[Carding|Carding devices]] – Historian of science [[Joseph Needham]] ascribes the invention of bow-instruments used in textile technology to India.<ref name=Baber1/> The earliest evidence for using bow-instruments for carding comes from India (2nd century CE).<ref name=Baber1/> These carding devices, called ''kaman'' and ''dhunaki'' would loosen the texture of the fibre by the means of a vibrating string.<ref name=Baber1/>
* [[Cashmere wool|Cashmere]] – The fibre cashmere fibre also known as ''pashm'' or ''pashmina'' for its use in [[Kashmir shawl|the handmade shawls of Kashmir, India]].<ref>Encyclopædia Britannica (2008). ''cashmere''.</ref> The woolen shawls made from wool in Indian administered [[Kashmir]] find written mention between the 3rd century BCE and the 11th century CE.<ref name=ebpasm>Encyclopædia Britannica (2008). ''kashmir shawl''.</ref>
* [[Spinning wheel#Charkha|Charkha]] (Spinning wheel): invented in India, between 500 and 1000 CE.<ref>{{cite book | last1 = Smith | first1 = C. Wayne | last2 = Cothren | first2 = J. Tom | title = Cotton: Origin, History, Technology, and Production | publisher = John Wiley & Sons | volume = 4 | date = 1999 | pages = viii | url = http://www.wiley.com/WileyCDA/WileyTitle/productCd-0471180459.html | isbn = 978-0471180456
 | quote = The first improvement in spinning technology was the spinning wheel, which was invented in India between 500 and 1000 A.D.}}</ref>
* [[Chintz]] – The origin of Chintz is from the printed all cotton fabric of calico in India.<ref name=eb-chintz>Encyclopædia Britannica (2008). ''chintz''</ref> The origin of the word ''chintz'' itself is from the [[Hindi language]] word चित्र् (chitr), which means an image.<ref name=eb-chintz/><ref name="Hāṇḍā">Hāṇḍā (1998), page 133</ref>
* [[Cotton|Cotton cultivation]] – Cotton was cultivated by the inhabitants of the [[Indus Valley civilisation]] by the [[5th millennium BCE]]{{snd}}[[4th millennium BCE]].<ref>Stein (1998), page 47</ref> The Indus cotton industry was well developed and some methods used in cotton spinning and fabrication continued to be practised until the modern industrialisation of India.<ref>Wisseman & Williams (1994), page 127</ref> Well before the [[Common Era]], the use of cotton textiles had spread from India to the [[Mediterranean]] and beyond.<ref>The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. ''cotton''.</ref>
* [[Cotton gin|Single roller cotton gin]] – The [[Ajanta Caves]] of India yield evidence of a single roller cotton gin in use by the 5th century.<ref>Angela Lakwete: ''Inventing the Cotton Gin: Machine and Myth in Antebellum America'', The Johns Hopkins University Press, 2003, {{ISBN|0-8018-7394-0}}, p. 5</ref> This cotton gin was used in India until innovations were made in form of foot powered gins.<ref name=Babergin>Baber (1996), page 56</ref> The cotton gin was invented in India as a mechanical device known as ''charkhi'', more technically the "wooden-worm-worked roller". This mechanical device was, in some parts of India, driven by water power.<ref name=Baber1>Baber (1996), page 57</ref>
* [[Worm drive]] [[cotton gin]] – The worm drive later appeared in the [[Indian subcontinent]], for use in roller [[cotton gin]]s, during the [[Delhi Sultanate]] in the thirteenth or fourteenth centuries.<ref name="india">[[Irfan Habib]], [https://books.google.com/books?id=K8kO4J3mXUAC&pg=PA53 ''Economic History of Medieval India, 1200–1500'', page 53], [[Pearson Education]]</ref>
* [[Crank (mechanism)|Crank]] Handle [[Cotton Gin]] – The incorporation of the [[Crank (mechanism)|crank]] handle in the cotton gin, first appeared in either the late [[Delhi Sultanate]] or the early [[Mughal Empire]].<ref>[[Irfan Habib]] (2011), [https://books.google.com/books?id=K8kO4J3mXUAC&pg=PA53 ''Economic History of Medieval India, 1200–1500'', pp. 53–54], [[Pearson Education]]</ref>
* [[Palampore]] – {{lang|hi|पालमपोर्}} (Hindi language) of Indian origin<ref name=eb-interior-design>Encyclopædia Britannica (2008). ''interior design''</ref> was imported to the western world—notable England and [[Colonial America]]—from India.<ref name=eb-crewel-work>Encyclopædia Britannica (2008). ''crewel work''</ref><ref name=eb-quilting >Encyclopædia Britannica (2008). ''quilting''</ref> In 17th-century England these hand painted cotton fabrics influenced native crewel work design.<ref name=eb-crewel-work/> Shipping vessels from India also took palampore to colonial America, where it was used in [[quilting]].<ref name=eb-quilting/>
* [[Prayer flags]] – The [[Buddhism|Buddhist]] [[sūtra]]s, written on cloth in India, were transmitted to other regions of the world.<ref name=Baker1>Barker, page 13</ref> These sutras, written on banners, were the origin of prayer flags.<ref name=Baker1/> Legend ascribes the origin of the prayer flag to the [[Shakyamuni Buddha]], whose prayers were written on battle flags used by the ''[[Deva (Buddhism)|devas]]'' against their adversaries, the ''[[Asura (Buddhism)|asuras]]''.<ref name=Beer60>Beer, page 60</ref> The legend may have given the Indian ''[[bhikku]]'' a reason for carrying the 'heavenly' banner as a way of signyfying his commitment to ''[[ahimsa]]''.<ref name=wise-11-12>Wise, page 11{{ndash}}12</ref> This knowledge was carried into [[Tibet]] by 800 CE, and the actual flags were introduced no later than 1040 CE, where they were further modified.<ref name=wise-11-12/> The Indian monk [[Atisha]] (980{{ndash}}1054 CE) introduced the Indian practice of printing on cloth prayer flags to Tibet.<ref name=Beer60/>
* [[Tanning (leather)]] – Ancient civilizations used leather for [[waterskin]]s, bags, harnesses and tack, boats, [[armour]], [[quiver]]s, [[scabbard]]s, [[boot]]s, and [[sandal (footwear)|sandal]]s. Tanning was being carried out by the inhabitants of [[Mehrgarh]] in Ancient India between 7000 and 3300&nbsp;BCE.<ref name=Possehl>Possehl, Gregory L. (1996). ''Mehrgarh'' in ''Oxford Companion to Archaeology'', edited by Brian Fagan. Oxford University Press.</ref>
* Roller [[sugar mill]] –  Geared sugar [[Roller mill|rolling mills]] first appeared in Mughal India, using the principle of rollers as well as [[worm gear]]ing, by the 17th century.<ref name="K8kO4J3mXUAC page 53">[[Irfan Habib]] (2011), [https://books.google.com/books?id=K8kO4J3mXUAC&pg=PA53 ''Economic History of Medieval India, 1200–1500'', p. 53], [[Pearson Education]]</ref>

=== Well-being ===
{{See also|Indian physical culture}}
* [[Indian club]]s: The Indian club—which appeared in Europe during the 18th century—was used long by India's native soldiery before its introduction to Europe.<ref name=tadd95>Todd, Jan (1995). [http://www.la84foundation.org/SportsLibrary/IGH/IGH0306/IGH0306c.pdf ''From Milo to Milo: A History of Barbells, Dumbells, and Indian Clubs''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120731101012/http://www.la84foundation.org/SportsLibrary/IGH/IGH0306/IGH0306c.pdf |date=31 July 2012 }}. Accessed in September 2008. Hosted on the [[LA84 Foundation|LA84 Foundation Sports Library]].</ref> During the [[British Raj]] the British officers in India performed calisthenic exercises with clubs to keep in physical condition.<ref name=tadd95/> From Britain the use of club swinging spread to the rest of the world.<ref name=tadd95/>
* [[Shampoo]] – The word ''[[wikt:Shampoo|shampoo]]'' in English is derived from [[Hindustani language|Hindustani]] {{transl|hi|ISO|cā̃po}} ({{lang|hi|चाँपो}} {{IPA|hns|tʃãːpoː|ipa}}),<ref>{{transl|hi|ISO|cā̃po}} ({{lang|hi|चाँपो}} {{IPA|hns|tʃãːpoː|ipa}}) is the [[imperative mood|imperative]] of {{transl|hi|ISO|cā̃pnā}} ({{lang|hi|चाँपना}} {{IPA|hns|tʃãːpnaː|ipa}}), "to smear, knead the muscles, massage the head and hair"</ref> and dates to 1762.<ref>{{cite web
 | title = Online Etymology Dictionary
 | url = http://www.etymonline.com/
 | author = Douglas Harper
 | access-date = 14 July 2007
}}</ref> A variety of herbs and their extracts were used as shampoos since ancient times in India, evidence of early herbal shampoo have been discovered from Indus Valley Civilization site of Banawali dated to 2750–2500 BCE.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Bisht|date=1993|title=Paleobotanical and pollen analytical investigations|url=http://nmma.nic.in/nmma/nmma_doc/Indian%20Archaeology%20Review/Indian%20Archaeology%201993-94%20A%20Review.pdf|journal=Indian Archaeology a Review 1993–1994|pages=143–144}}</ref> A very effective early shampoo was made by boiling [[Sapindus]] with dried [[Indian gooseberry]] (aamla) and a few other herbs, using the strained extract. Sapindus, also known as soapberries or soapnuts, is called ''Ksuna'' (Sanskrit: क्षुण)<ref>[http://www.sanskrit-lexicon.uni-koeln.de/cgi-bin/tamil/recherche kSuNa], Sanskrit Lexicon, Monier-Williams Dictionary (1872)</ref> in ancient Indian texts and its fruit pulp contain saponins, a natural surfactant. The extract of Ksuna, creates a lather which Indian texts identify as ''phenaka'' (Sanskrit: फेनक),<ref>[http://spokensanskrit.de/index.php?tinput=phenaka&direction=SE&script=HK&link=yes phenaka], Spoken Sanskrit, University of Koeln, Germany</ref> leaves the hair soft, shiny and manageable. Other products used for hair cleansing were shikakai ([[Acacia concinna]]), soapnuts ([[Sapindus]]), [[hibiscus]] flowers,<ref name=rahman>Rahman, {{Google books|4bnaAAAAMAAJ|History of Indian Science, Technology and Culture}}, Oxford University Press, {{ISBN|978-0195646528}}, page 145</ref><ref>[http://www.tnsmpb.tn.gov.in/images/HIBISCUS%20ROSA%20SINENSIS.pdf Tamil Nadu Medicinal plants board] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110721161928/http://www.tnsmpb.tn.gov.in/images/HIBISCUS%20ROSA%20SINENSIS.pdf |date=21 July 2011 }}</ref> ritha ([[Sapindus mukorossi]]) and arappu (Albizzia amara).<ref>[http://agritech.tnau.ac.in/forestry/forestry_nursery_albizzia_amara.html Tamil Nadu Agricultural university – Albizzia amara]</ref> [[Guru Nanak]], the founding prophet and the first [[Sikh Guru|Guru]] of [[Sikhism]], made references to soapberry tree and soap in 16th century.<ref>Khushwant Singh, Hymns of Guru Nanak, Orient Longman, {{ISBN|978-8125011613}}</ref> Washing of hair and body massage (champu) during a daily strip wash was an indulgence of early colonial traders in India. When they returned to Europe, they introduced their newly learnt habits, including the hair treatment they called shampoo.<ref>Virginia Smith (2007), Clean: A History of Personal Hygiene and Purity, Oxford University Press, {{ISBN|978-0199297795}}</ref>
* [[Yoga]] – Yoga as a physical, mental, and spiritual practice originated in [[ancient India]].<ref>{{cite web|title=bose real inventor|url=http://web.mit.edu/varun_ag/www/bose_real_inventor.pdf}}</ref>

=== Medicine ===
[[File:A statue of Sushruta at RACS, Melbourne.jpg|thumb|A statue of [[Sushruta]] (600 BCE), author of [[Sushruta Samhita]] and the founding father of [[History of surgery#India|surgery]], at [[Royal Australasian College of Surgeons]] (RACS) in [[Melbourne]], [[Australia]]]]
* [[Angina pectoris]] – The condition was named "hritshoola" in ancient India and was described by [[Sushruta]] (6th century BCE).<ref name="Dwivedi&Dwivedi07">{{cite journal|last1=Dwivedi |first1=Girish |last2=Dwivedi |first2=Shridhar |year=2007 |url=http://medind.nic.in/iae/t07/i4/iaet07i4p243.pdf |title=Sushruta – the Clinician – Teacher par Excellence |journal=The Indian Journal of Chest Diseases and Allied Sciences |volume=49 |pages=243{{ndash}}4 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081010045900/http://medind.nic.in/iae/t07/i4/iaet07i4p243.pdf |archive-date=10 October 2008 }}</ref>
* [[Ayurveda|Ayurvedic]] and [[Siddha medicine]] – Ayurveda and Siddha are ancient systems of medicine practised in South Asia. Ayurvedic ideas can be found in the Hindu text<ref>{{Cite book|title = Asceticism and Healing|last = Zysk|first = K. G.|publisher = Oxford University Press|year = 1991|isbn = 978-0-19-505956-4|location = London, New York, Delhi}}</ref> (mid-first millennium BCE). Ayurveda has evolved over thousands of years, and is still practised today. In an internationalised form, it can be thought of as a [[complementary and alternative medicine]]. In village settings, away from urban centres, it is simply "medicine." The Sanskrit word आयुर्वेदः (''āyur-vedaḥ'') means "knowledge ''(veda'') for longevity (''āyur'')".<ref name="Chopra75">{{Harvnb|Chopra|2003|p = 75}}</ref> Siddha medicine is mostly prevalent in South India, and is transmitted in Tamil, not Sanskrit, texts. Herbs and minerals are basic raw materials of the Siddha therapeutic system whose origins may be dated to the early centuries CE.<ref>{{Cite book|title = The Siddha Quest for Immortality|last = Zvelebil|first = Kamil V.|publisher = Mandrake of Oxford|year = 1996|isbn = 978-1-869928-43-8|location = Oxford}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|jstor = 604837|title = The Doctrine of the Three Humors in Traditional Indian Medicine and the Alleged Antiquity of Tamil Siddha Medicine|last = Scharf|first = Hartmut|date = 1999|journal = Journal of the American Oriental Society|doi = 10.2307/604837|volume=119|issue = 4|pages=609{{ndash}}629}}</ref>
*[[Diabetes]]:Sushruta and Charaka also identified the two types of diabetes mellitus, later dubbed [[Type 1 diabetes|Type I]] and [[Type 2 diabetes|Type II]] diabetes.<ref name=":1" /><ref name="History201022"/><ref name=":2" /><ref name=":3" /><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Roy|first1=CK|last2=Ojha|first2=JK|last3=Bajpai|first3=HS|date=Jan 1993|title=A review of the history of prameha and diabetes mellitus|journal=Ancient Science of Life|volume=12|issue=3–4|pages=394–398|pmc=3336561|pmid=22556618}}</ref>
* [[Leprosy]]: Kearns & Nash (2008) state that the first mention of leprosy is described in the Indian medical treatise ''[[Sushruta Samhita]]'' (6th century BCE).<ref name="k&n08">Kearns & Nash (2008)</ref> However, ''The Oxford Illustrated Companion to Medicine'' holds that the mention of leprosy, as well as ritualistic cures for it, were described in the ''[[Atharva-veda]]'' (1500{{ndash}}1200&nbsp;BCE), written before the ''Sushruta Samhita''.<ref>Lock; Last & Dunea (2001), page 420</ref>
* [[Calculus (medicine)|Lithiasis treatment]] – The earliest operation for treating lithiasis, or the formations of stones in the body, is also given in the ''Sushruta Samhita'' (6th century BCE).<ref name=Lock836/> The operation involved exposure and going up through the floor of the bladder.<ref name=Lock836>Lock; Last & Dunea (2001), page 836</ref>
* [[Visceral leishmaniasis|Visceral leishmaniasis, treatment of]] – The Indian (Bengali) medical practitioner [[Upendranath Brahmachari]] (19 December 1873 – 6 February 1946) was nominated for the [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine]] in 1929 for his discovery of 'ureastibamine ([[antimony|antimonial]] [[Chemical compound|compound]] for treatment of [[kala azar]]) and a new disease, post-kalaazar dermal leishmanoid.'<ref name=nobel_foundation_UPB>[[Nobel Foundation]] (2008). [http://nobelprize.org/nomination/medicine/nomination.php?action=show&showid=2791 ''The Nomination Database for the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, 1901{{ndash}}1951'']</ref> Brahmachari's cure for Visceral leishmaniasis was the urea salt of para-amino-phenyl stibnic acid which he called Urea Stibamine.<ref name=Vigyan_prasar_UNB>[http://www.vigyanprasar.gov.in/scientists/UNBrahmachari.htm ''Upendra Nath Brahmachari: A Pioneer of Modern Medicine in India'']. Vigyan Prasar: Government of India</ref> Following the discovery of Urea Stibamine, Visceral leishmaniasis was largely eradicated from the world, except for some underdeveloped regions.<ref name=Vigyan_prasar_UNB/>
* [[Ganja]] was used as herb for ayurverdic medicine development for last 2,000 years. The Sushruta Samhita, an ancient medical treatise, recommends cannabis plant extract for treating respiratory ailments and diarrhoea.
* [[Otoplasty]] – Ear surgery was developed in [[History of India|ancient India]] and is described in the medical compendium, the {{transl|sa|[[Sushruta Samhita]]}} (Sushruta's Compendium, {{circa|500 AD}}). The book discussed otoplastic and other [[plastic surgery]] techniques and procedures for correcting, repairing and reconstructing ears, [[Rhinoplasty|noses]], lips, and genitalia that were amputated as criminal, religious, and military punishments. The ancient Indian [[Medicine|medical]] knowledge and plastic surgery techniques of the {{transl|sa|Sushruta Samhita}} were practiced throughout Asia until the late 18th century; the October 1794 issue of the contemporary British ''[[Gentleman's Magazine]]'' reported the practice of [[rhinoplasty]], as described in the {{transl|sa|Sushruta Samhita}}. Moreover, two centuries later, contemporary practices of otoplastic praxis were derived from the techniques and procedures developed and established in antiquity by Sushruta.{{sfn|Rinzler|2009|p=151}}<ref>{{Cite book |last=Wujastyk |first=Dominik |title=The Roots of Ayurveda |publisher=Penguin |year=2003 |isbn=0-140-44824-1 |edition=3 |pages=63–100}}</ref>
* [[Tonsillectomy]] – Tonsillectomies have been practiced for over 2,000 years, with varying popularity over the centuries.<ref name="McNeill1960">{{cite journal | vauthors = McNeill RA | title = A History of Tonsillectomy: Two Millennia of Trauma, Haemorrhage and Controversy | journal = The Ulster Medical Journal | volume = 29 | issue = 1 | pages = 59–63 | date = June 1960 | pmid = 20476427 | pmc = 2384338 }}</ref> The earliest mention of the procedure is in "Hindu medicine" from about 1000 [[BCE]]
* [[Caesarian section]] – The [[Sanskrit]] medical treatise ''[[Sushruta Samhita]]'', composed in the early 1st millennium CE, mentions post-mortem caesarean sections.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Lurie |first1=Samuel |title=The changing motives of cesarean section: from the ancient world to the twenty-first century |journal=Archives of Gynecology and Obstetrics |date=April 2005 |volume=271 |issue=4 |pages=281–285 |doi=10.1007/s00404-005-0724-4 |pmid=15856269 }}</ref> The first available non-mythical record of a C-section is the mother of [[Bindusara]] (born {{circa|320 BC}}, ruled 298&nbsp;– {{circa|272 BC}}), the second [[Mauryan empire|Mauryan]] ''Samrat'' ([[emperor]]) of India, accidentally consumed poison and died when she was close to delivering him. [[Chanakya]], Chandragupta's teacher and adviser, made up his mind that the baby should survive. He cut open the belly of the queen and took out the baby, thus saving the baby's life.<ref name="Lurie">{{cite journal | vauthors = Lurie S | title = The changing motives of cesarean section: from the ancient world to the twenty-first century | journal = Archives of Gynecology and Obstetrics | volume = 271 | issue = 4 | pages = 281–285 | date = April 2005 | pmid = 15856269 | doi = 10.1007/s00404-005-0724-4 | s2cid = 26690619 }}</ref>

=== Equestrianism ===
* [[Stirrup|Toe stirrup]] – The earliest known manifestation of the stirrup, which was a toe loop that held the big toe was used in India in as early as 500&nbsp;BCE<ref name=Chamberlin80>Chamberlin (2007), page 80</ref> or perhaps by 200&nbsp;BCE according to other sources.<ref name=Hobson103>Hobson (2004), page 103</ref><ref name=woods2p52>Woods & Woods (2000), pages 52{{ndash}}53</ref> This ancient stirrup consisted of a looped rope for the big toe which was at the bottom of a saddle made of fibre or leather.<ref name=woods2p52/> Such a configuration made it suitable for the warm climate of most of India where people used to ride horses barefoot.<ref name=woods2p52/> A pair of megalithic double bent iron bars with curvature at each end, excavated in [[Stone circles of Junapani|Junapani]] in the central Indian state of [[Madhya Pradesh]] have been regarded as stirrups although they could as well be something else.<ref name=EIA336>"16.17.4: Stirrups". ''Encyclopaedia of Indian Archaeology'' (Vol. 1). Edited by Amalananda Ghosh (1990). page 336</ref> Buddhist carvings in the temples of Sanchi, [[Mathura, Uttar Pradesh|Mathura]] and the [[Bhaja Caves|Bhaja caves]] dating back between the 1st and 2nd century BCE figure horsemen riding with elaborate saddles with feet slipped under girths.<ref name=Azzaroli156>Azzaroli (1985), page 156</ref><ref name=Addington45>Addington (1990), page 45</ref><ref name=Barua17>Barua (2005), pages 16{{ndash}}17</ref> [[John Marshall (archaeologist)|Sir John Marshall]] described the Sanchi relief as "the earliest example by some five centuries of the use of stirrups in any part of the world".<ref name=Barua17/> In the 1st century CE horse riders in northern India, where winters are sometimes long and cold, were recorded to have their booted feet attached to hooked stirrups.<ref name=Hobson103/> However the form, the conception of the primitive Indian stirrup spread west and east, gradually evolving into the stirrup of today.<ref name=woods2p52/><ref name=Addington45/>

=== Metallurgy, gems and other commodities ===
* [[History of ferrous metallurgy|Iron working]] – Iron works were developed in India, around the same time as, but independently of, [[Anatolia]] and the [[Caucasus]]. Archaeological sites in India, such as [[Malhar]], Dadupur, Raja Nala Ka Tila and Lahuradewa in present-day [[Uttar Pradesh]] show iron implements in the period between 1800&nbsp;BCE—1200&nbsp;BCE.<ref name=Tewari>{{cite web|url=http://antiquity.ac.uk/projgall/tewari/tewari.pdf |title=The origins of Iron Working in India: New evidence from the Central Ganga plain and the Eastern Vindhyas by Rakesh Tewari (Director, U.P. State Archaeological Department) |publisher=antiquity.ac.uk|access-date=13 April 2015}}</ref> Early iron objects found in India can be dated to 1400&nbsp;BCE by employing the method of [[radiocarbon dating]]. [[Nail (fastener)|Spikes]], [[knife|knives]], [[dagger]]s, [[arrow]]-heads, [[bowl (vessel)|bowls]], [[spoon]]s, [[saucepan]]s, [[axe]]s, [[chisel]]s, tongs, door fittings etc. ranging from 600&nbsp;BCE to 200&nbsp;BCE have been discovered from several archaeological sites of India.<ref name=Ceccarelli>Marco Ceccarelli (2000). ''International Symposium on History of Machines and Mechanisms: Proceedings HMM Symposium''. Springer. {{ISBN|0-7923-6372-8}}. pp 218</ref> Some scholars believe that by the early 13th century BCE, iron smelting was practised on a bigger scale in India, suggesting that the date the technology's inception may be placed earlier.<ref name=Tewari/> In [[Southern India]] (present day [[Mysore]]) iron appeared as early as 11th to 12th centuries BCE; these developments were too early for any significant close contact with the northwest of the country.<ref name=UCP>I. M. Drakonoff (1991). ''Early Antiquity''. University of Chicago Press. {{ISBN|0-226-14465-8}}. pp 372</ref> In the time of [[Chandragupta II]] Vikramaditya (375{{ndash}}413 CE), corrosion-resistant iron was used to erect the [[Iron pillar of Delhi]], which has withstood corrosion for over 1,600 years.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Balasubramaniam | first1 = R. | year = 2000 | title = On the Corrosion Resistance of the Delhi Iron Pillar | url = http://home.iitk.ac.in/%7Ebala/journalpaper/journal/journalpaper_17.pdf | journal = Corrosion Science | volume = 42 | issue = 12| pages = 2103{{ndash}}29 | doi=10.1016/s0010-938x(00)00046-9| bibcode = 2000Corro..42.2103B }}</ref>
* [[Crucible steel]] – Perhaps as early as 300&nbsp;BCE—although certainly by 200 BCE—high quality steel was being produced in southern India, by what Europeans would later call the crucible technique.<ref name=Juleff>{{cite journal | last1 = Juleff | first1 = G | year = 1996 | title = An ancient wind powered iron smelting technology in Sri Lanka | doi = 10.1038/379060a0 | journal = [[Nature (journal)|Nature]] | volume = 379 | issue = 6560| pages = 60{{ndash}}63 | bibcode = 1996Natur.379...60J | s2cid = 205026185 }}</ref> In this system, high-purity wrought iron, charcoal, and glass were mixed in a crucible and heated until the iron melted and absorbed the carbon.<ref name=Juleff/>
* [[Dockyard]] – The world's earliest enclosed dockyard was built in the Harappan port city of [[Lothal]] circa 2600 BC in Gujarat, India.<ref name=":02">{{Cite web |title=Archaeological remains of a Harappa Port-Town, Lothal |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/5918/ |access-date=2022-02-10 |website=UNESCO World Heritage Centre }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date=9 March 2020 |title=This is Modi govt's plan for India's first National Maritime Museum in Gujarat's Lothal |website=[[ThePrint]] |url=https://theprint.in/india/governance/this-is-modi-govts-plan-for-indias-first-national-maritime-museum-in-gujarats-lothal/376488/}}</ref>
* [[Diamond cut|Diamond drills]] – in the 12th century BCE or 7th century BCE, Indians not only innovated use of diamond tipped drills but also invented double diamond tipped drills for bead manufacturing.<ref name=":0" />
* [[Diamond cut|Diamond cutting and polishing]] – The technology of cutting and polishing diamonds was invented in India, Ratnapariksha, a text dated to 6th century talks about diamond cutting and Al-Beruni speaks about the method of using lead plate for diamond polishing in the 11th century CE.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Keene|first=Manuel|date=1981|title=THE LAPIDARY ARTS IN ISLAM|url=https://www.penn.museum/sites/expedition/the-lapidary-arts-in-islam/|access-date=31 July 2020|website=Penn Museum}}</ref>
* [[Draw bar]] – The draw bar was applied to sugar-milling, with evidence of its use at [[Delhi]] in the [[Mughal Empire]] by 1540, but possibly dating back several centuries earlier to the [[Delhi Sultanate]].<ref name="Habib53">[[Irfan Habib]] (2011), [https://books.google.com/books?id=K8kO4J3mXUAC&pg=PA53 ''Economic History of Medieval India, 1200–1500'', page 53], [[Pearson Education]]</ref>
* [[Etched carnelian beads]] – are a type of ancient decorative beads made from [[carnelian]] with an etched design in white. They were made according to a technique of alkaline-etching developed by the [[Harappa|Harappans during the 3rd millennium BCE]] and were widely disperced from China in the east to Greece in the west.<ref>For the etching technique, see {{cite journal|last1=MacKay|first1=Ernest|date=1925|title=Sumerian Connexions with Ancient India|journal=The Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland|issue=4|pages=699|jstor=25220818}}</ref><ref name="FeniXX réédition numérique">{{cite book|last1=Guimet|first1=Musée|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-HpYDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA355|title=Les Cités oubliées de l'Indus: Archéologie du Pakistan|date=2016|publisher=FeniXX réédition numérique|isbn=9782402052467|page=355|language=fr}}</ref><ref>"Such beads occur fairly largely on all the principal sites of the Harappan civilisation." in {{cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.532513/page/n49/mode/2up|title=Pakistan Archaeology No.2|date=1965|page=21}}</ref>
* [[Glassblowing]] – Rudimentary form of glass blowing from [[Indian subcontinent]] is attested earlier than Western Asian counterparts(where it is attested not earlier than 1st century BCE) in the form of [[Indo-Pacific beads]] which uses glass blowing to make cavity before being subjected to [[Tube drawing|tube drawn technique]] for bead making dated more than 2500 BP.<ref>{{Cite web|date=17 November 2020|first=M. T.|last=Saju|title=Indians made glass blown beads 2,500 years ago|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/chennai/indians-made-glass-blown-beads-2500-years-ago/articleshow/79256112.cms|access-date=2021-03-06|website=The Times of India}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Francis |first1=Peter |title=Glass Beads in Asia Part Two. Indo-Pacific Beads |journal=Asian Perspectives |date=1990 |volume=29 |issue=1 |pages=1–23 |jstor=42928207 }}</ref> Beads are made by attaching molten glass gather to the end of a blowpipe, a bubble is then blown into the gather.<ref name="Wood 2012 248"/> The glass blown vessels were rarely attested and were imported commodity in 1st millennium CE though.
* [[Lost-wax casting]] – Metal casting by the [[Indus Valley civilization]] began around 3500 BC in the [[Mohenjodaro]] area,<ref name=Kuppuram>{{cite book |first=Govindarajan |last=Kuppuram |title=Ancient Indian Mining, Metallurgy, and Metal Industries |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GAnVuQAACAAJ |year=1989 |publisher=Sundeep Prakashan |isbn=978-81-85067-28-5}}</ref> which produced one of the earliest known examples of lost-wax casting, an Indian bronze figurine named the "[[Dancing Girl (prehistoric sculpture)|dancing girl]]" that dates back nearly 5,000 years to the [[Indus Valley civilization|Harappan]] period (c. 3300–1300 BC).<ref name=Kuppuram/><ref name=Krishnan>{{cite book |first=M.V. |last=Krishnan |title=Cire perdue casting in India |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VxhUAAAAMAAJ |year=1976 |publisher=Kanak Publications}}</ref> Other examples include the buffalo, bull and dog found at Mohenjodaro and [[Harappa]],<ref name="Agrawal">{{cite book |last=Agrawal |first=D. P. |title=Ancient Metal Technology and Archaeology of South Asia. A Pan-Asian Perspective |year=2000 |publisher=Aryan Books International |location=New Delhi |isbn=978-81-7305-177-7}}</ref><ref name=Krishnan/><ref name=Kenoyer>Kenoyer, J. M. & H. M.-L. Miller, (1999). Metal Technologies of the Indus Valley Tradition in Pakistan and Western India., in ''The Archaeometallurgy of the Asian Old World''., ed. V. C. Pigott. Philadelphia: The University of Pennsylvania Museum.</ref> two [[copper]] figures found at the Harappan site [[Lothal]] in the district of Ahmedabad of Gujarat,<ref name=Kuppuram/> and likely a covered cart with wheels missing and a complete cart with a driver found at [[Chanhudaro]].<ref name=Agrawal/><ref name=Kenoyer/>
* Seamless [[celestial globe]] – Considered one of the most remarkable feats in [[metallurgy]], it was invented in India in between 1589 and 1590 CE.<ref name=Kamarustafa48>Kamarustafa (1992), page 48</ref><ref name=Emilie/> Before they were rediscovered in the 1980s, it was believed by modern metallurgists to be technically impossible to produce metal globes without any [[wikt:seam|seams]], even with modern technology.<ref name=Emilie>{{Cite book|first=Emilie|last=Savage-Smith|author-link =Emilie Savage-Smith|title=Islamicate Celestial Globes: Their history, Construction, and Use|publisher=Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, D.C.|year=1985}}</ref>
* [[Stoneware]] – Earliest stonewares, predecessors of [[porcelain]] have been recorded at Indus Valley Civilization sites of [[Harappa]] and [[Mohenjo-daro|Mohenjo Daro]], they were used for making stoneware bangles.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Satyawadi|first1=Sudha|title=Proto-Historic Pottery of Indus Valley Civilization; Study of Painted Motif|date=1 July 1994|publisher=D.K. Printworld|isbn=978-8124600306|pages=324}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Blackman |first1= M. James |display-authors=etal. |title=The Production and Distribution of Stoneware Bangles at Mohenjo-daro and Harappa as Monitored by Chemical Characterization Studies|date=1992|publisher=Prehistory Press|location=Madison, WI, USA|pages=37–44}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Mark Kenoyer|first1=Jonathan|title=Ancient Cities of the Indus Valley Civilization|date=1998|publisher=Oxford University Press|pages=260}}</ref>
* [[Tube drawing|Tube drawn]] technology: Indians used tube drawn technology for glass bead manufacturing which was first developed in the 2nd century BCE.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wood |first1=Marilee |first2=Laure |last2=Dussubieux |first3=Peter |last3=Robertshaw |title=The Glass of Chibuene, Mozambique: New Insights into Early Indian Ocean Trade |journal=South African Archaeological Bulletin |volume=67 |issue=195 |date=2012 |pages=59–74 |url=https://search.informit.org/doi/10.3316/informit.617320154390031 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wood |first1=Marilee |last2=Panighello |first2=Serena |last3=Orsega |first3=Emilio F. |last4=Robertshaw |first4=Peter |last5=van Elteren |first5=Johannes T. |last6=Crowther |first6=Alison |last7=Horton |first7=Mark |last8=Boivin |first8=Nicole |title=Zanzibar and Indian Ocean trade in the first millennium CE: the glass bead evidence |journal=Archaeological and Anthropological Sciences |date=August 2017 |volume=9 |issue=5 |pages=879–901 |doi=10.1007/s12520-015-0310-z |doi-access=free |bibcode=2017ArAnS...9..879W |hdl=11858/00-001M-0000-0029-7CD9-0 |hdl-access=free }}</ref><ref name="Wood 2012 248">{{cite journal |last1=Wood |first1=Marilee |title=Interconnections: glass beads and trade in southern and eastern Africa and the Indian Ocean - 7th to 16th centuries AD |journal=Azania |date=June 2012 |volume=47 |issue=2 |pages=248 |doi=10.1080/0067270X.2012.680307 |url=http://urn.kb.se/resolve?urn=urn:nbn:se:uu:diva-162650 }}</ref>
* [[Tumble finishing|Tumble polishing]] – Indians innvoted polishing method in the 10th century BCE for mass production of polished stone beads.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Kenoyer |first1=J. Mark |last2=Vidale |first2=Massimo |title=A New Look at Stone Drills of the Indus Valley Tradition |journal=MRS Proceedings |date=1992 |volume=267 |doi=10.1557/PROC-267-495 }}</ref><ref name=":0">{{cite journal |last1=Gwinnett |first1=A. John |last2=Gorelick |first2=Leonard |title=Bead Manufacture at Hajar Ar-Rayhani, Yemen |journal=The Biblical Archaeologist |date=1991 |volume=54 |issue=4 |pages=187–196 |doi=10.2307/3210280 |jstor=3210280 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Gwinnett |first1=A. John |last2=Gorelick |first2=L. |title=Beads, Scarabs, and Amulets: Methods of Manufacture in Ancient Egypt |journal=Journal of the American Research Center in Egypt |date=1993 |volume=30 |pages=125–132 |doi=10.2307/40000232 |jstor=40000232 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Bellina |first1=B. |title=The elaboration of political models in maritime Southeast Asia and of pan-regional culture: Contribution from Khao Sek stone ornament craft system study |journal=Archaeological Research in Asia |date=March 2018 |volume=13 |pages=13–24 |doi=10.1016/j.ara.2017.06.002 }}</ref>
* [[Wootz steel]] – Wootz steel is an ultra-high carbon steel and the first form of crucible steel manufactured by the applications and use of [[nanomaterials]] in its microstructure and is characterised by its ultra-high carbon content exhibiting properties such as superplasticity and high impact hardness.<ref>{{cite web|title=WOOTZ STEEL: AN ADVANCED MATERIAL OF THE ANCIENT WORLD|url=http://materials.iisc.ernet.in/~wootz/heritage/WOOTZ.htm|website=materials.iisc.ernet.in|access-date=23 July 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190211082829/http://materials.iisc.ernet.in/~wootz/heritage/WOOTZ.htm|archive-date=11 February 2019|url-status=dead}}</ref> Archaeological and [[Tamil language]] [[Sangam literature|literary]] evidence suggests that this manufacturing process was already in existence in South India well before the common era, with [[wootz steel]] exported from the [[Chera]] dynasty and called ''Seric Iron'' in Rome, and later known as [[Damascus steel]] in Europe.<ref name=Srinivasan>Srinivasan 1994</ref><ref name=Griffiths>Srinivasan & Griffiths</ref><ref name="dli">{{cite journal |last1=Sasisekaran  |first1=B |last2=Raghunatha Rao |first2=B |title=Technology of Iron and Steel in Kodumanal – An Ancient Industrial Centre in Tamilnadu |journal=Indian Journal of History & Science |volume=34 |issue=4 |date=1999 |pages=263–272 |url=http://www.dli.gov.in/rawdataupload/upload/insa/INSA_1/20005b66_263.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150923215550/http://www.dli.gov.in/rawdataupload/upload/insa/INSA_1/20005b66_263.pdf |archive-date=23 September 2015 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=A great past in bright colours |url=http://www.frontlineonnet.com/fl2720/stories/20101008272006400.htm |newspaper=Frontline |date=8 October 2010 |location=India |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110203113057/http://frontlineonnet.com/fl2720/stories/20101008272006400.htm |archive-date= 3 February 2011 }}</ref> Reproduction research is undertaken by scientists Dr. Oleg Sherby and Dr. Jeff Wadsworth and the [[Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory]] have all attempted to create steels with characteristics similar to Wootz, but without success. J.D Verhoeven and Al Pendray attained some success in the reconstruction methods of production, proved the role of impurities of ore in the pattern creation, and reproduced Wootz steel with patterns microscopically and visually identical to one of the ancient blade patterns.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Sherby |first1=Oleg D. |last2=Wadsworth |first2=Jeffrey |title=Ancient blacksmiths, the Iron Age, Damascus steels, and modern metallurgy |journal=Journal of Materials Processing Technology |date=November 2001 |volume=117 |issue=3 |pages=347–353 |doi=10.1016/S0924-0136(01)00794-4 |url=https://digital.library.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metadc718386/ }}</ref>
* [[Rain gauge]] – People living in [[India]] began to record rainfall in 400 BCE.<ref name="Strangeways">Ian Strangeways, A History of rain gauges, TerraData, 2010</ref> The readings were correlated against expected growth. In the [[Arthashastra]], used for example in [[Magadha (Mahajanapada)|Magadha]], precise standards were set as to grain production. Each state storehouse was equipped with a rain gauge to classify land for taxation purposes.<ref>Kosambi (1982) The Culture and Civilization of Ancient India in Historical Outline, p. 153, {{ISBN|978-0-7069-1399-6}}</ref>
* [[Touchstone (assaying tool)|Touchstone]] – The touchstone was used during the [[Indus Valley civilization#Chronology|Harappa period of the Indus Valley civilization]] ca. 2600–1900 BC for testing the purity of soft metals.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Gold: A Cultural Encyclopedia|last=Venable|first=Shannon L.|publisher=ABC-CLIO, LLC|year=2011|isbn=978-0313-384318|location=Santa Barbara, CA|pages=264}}</ref>

=== Metrology ===
* [[Standardisation]] – The oldest applications and evidence of standardisation come from the Indus Valley Civilisation in the 5th millennium BCE characterised by the existence of weights in various standards and categories as<ref name=Kenoyer265/> well as the Indus merchants usage of a centralised weight and measure system. Small weights were used to measure luxury goods, and larger weights were used for buying bulkier items, such as food grains etc.<ref name=Kenoyer265>Kenoyer, 265</ref> The weights and measures of the Indus civilisation also reached [[Persia]] and [[Central Asia]], where they were further modified.<ref name=Iwata2254_quote>In the third millennium BCE the Indus measuring system was further developed in the ancient regions of Iran and Afghanistan – Iwata, 2254.</ref>
 <blockquote> A total of 558 weights were excavated from Mohenjodaro, Harappa, and [[Chanhudaro|Chanhu-daro]], not including defective weights. They did not find statistically significant differences between weights that were excavated from five different layers, each about 1.5&nbsp;m in thickness. This was evidence that strong control existed for at least a 500-year period. The 13.7-g weight seems to be one of the units used in the Indus valley. The notation was based on the [[Binary numeral system|binary]] and [[decimal]] systems. 83% of the weights which were excavated from the above three cities were cubic, and 68% were made of [[chert]].<ref name=Iwata2254>Iwata2254</ref> </blockquote>
* [[Technical standards]] – Technical standards were being applied and used in the [[Indus Valley civilisation]] since the 5th millennium BCE to enable gauging devices to be effectively used in [[angular measurement]] and [[measurement]] in construction.<ref name=Baber_b>Baber, 23</ref> Uniform units of length were used in the planning and construction of towns such as [[Lothal]], [[Surkotada]], [[Kalibangan]], [[Dholavira]], [[Harappa]], and [[Mohenjo-daro]].<ref name=Iwata2254/> The weights and measures of the Indus civilisation also reached [[Persia]] and [[Central Asia]], where they were further modified.<ref name=Iwata2254_quote/>

=== Weapons ===
* Metal cylinder [[rocket]]: In the 16th century, [[Akbar]] was the first to initiate and use metal cylinder rockets known as ''bans'', particularly against [[war elephant]]s, during the Battle of Sanbal.<ref>{{cite web |author=MughalistanSipahi |date=19 June 2010 |title=Islamic Mughal Empire: War Elephants Part 3 |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Lbzr26t8H2U |url-status=live |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211213/Lbzr26t8H2U |archive-date=2021-12-13 |access-date=28 November 2012 |via=YouTube}}{{cbignore}}</ref>{{Better source needed|reason=History channel is low reliability source. Textx sources also preferred over video|date=May 2024}}
* [[Mysorean rockets]] – One of the first iron-cased [[rocket]]s were deployed by [[Hyder Ali]]'s army, ruler of the South Indian [[Kingdom of Mysore]].<ref>Roddam Narasimha (1985), [http://nal-ir.nal.res.in/2382/01/tr_pd_du_8503_R66305.pdf Rockets in Mysore and Britain, 1750{{ndash}}1850 A.D.] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070927182042/http://nal-ir.nal.res.in/2382/01/tr_pd_du_8503_R66305.pdf |date=27 September 2007 }}, National Aeronautical Laboratory and Indian Institute of Science"Hyder Ali, prince of Mysore, developed war rockets with an important change: the use of metal cylinders to contain the combustion powder. Although the hammered soft iron he used was crude, the bursting strength of the container of black powder was much higher than the earlier paper construction. Thus a greater internal pressure was possible, with a resultant greater thrust of the propulsive jet. The rocket body was lashed with leather thongs to a long bamboo stick. Range was perhaps up to three-quarters of a mile (more than a kilometre). Although individually these rockets were not accurate, dispersion error became less important when large numbers were fired rapidly in mass attacks. They were particularly effective against cavalry and were hurled into the air, after lighting, or skimmed along the hard dry ground. Hyder Ali's son, [[Tippu Sultan]], continued to develop and expand the use of rocket weapons, reportedly increasing the number of rocket troops from 1,200 to a corps of 5,000. In battles at [[Seringapatam]] in 1792 and 1799 these rockets were used with considerable effect against the British." – Encyclopædia Britannica (2008). ''rocket and missile''.</ref>
* [[Rocket artillery]] - The first true rocket artillery was developed by [[Tipu Sultan]] and was notably in use during the [[Anglo-Mysore Wars]].<ref name="Riper2007">{{cite book |author=A. Bowdoin Van Riper |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=k8CxJeFzCdQC&pg=PA14 |title=Rockets and Missiles: The Life Story of a Technology |date=29 October 2007 |publisher=JHU Press |isbn=978-0-8018-8792-5 |pages=14–}}</ref><ref name="Roddam">{{cite report |last=Narasimha |first=Roddam |date=27 July 2011 |title=Rockets in Mysore and Britain, 1750–1850 A.D. |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/37179995 |publisher=National Aeronautical Laboratory and Indian Institute of Science }}</ref>

=== Philosophy and logic ===
* [[Catuṣkoṭi|Catuskoti (Tetralemma)]] – The four-cornered system of logical argumentation with a suite of four distinct functions that refers to a logical proposition P, with four possibilities that can arise. The tetralemma has many [[Epistemology|logico-epistemological]] applications and has been made ample use of by the Indian philosopher [[Nagarjuna|Nāgarjuna]] in the [[Madhyamaka]] school. The tetralemma also features prominently in the Greek [[Skepticism|skepticist]] school of [[Pyrrhonism]], the teachings of which are based on Buddhism. According to [[Christopher I. Beckwith]] ,the founder of the Pyrrhonist school lived in India for 18 months and likely learned the language, which allowed him to carry these teachings to Greece.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Beckwith|first=Christopher I.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RlCUBgAAQBAJ|title=Greek Buddha: Pyrrho's Encounter with Early Buddhism in Central Asia|date=2015-06-09|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=978-1-4008-6632-8}}</ref> However, other scholars, such as [[Stephen Batchelor (author)|Stephen Batchelor]]<ref>[[Stephen Batchelor (author)|Stephen Batchelor]] "Greek Buddha: Pyrrho's encounter with early Buddhism in central Asia", ''Contemporary Buddhism'', 2016, pp 195–215</ref> and Charles Goodman<ref>Charles Goodman, "Neither Scythian nor Greek: A Response to Beckwith's Greek Buddha and Kuzminski's "Early Buddhism Reconsidered"", ''Philosophy East and West'', University of Hawai'i Press Volume 68, Number 3, July 2018 pp. 984–1006</ref> question Beckwith's conclusions about the degree of Buddhist influence on Pyrrho
* [[Trairūpya]] – Trairūpya is a logical argument that contains three constituents which a logical ‘sign’ or ‘mark’ (linga) must fulfill to be 'valid source of knowledge' ([[pramana]]):
#It should be present in the case or object under consideration, the ‘subject-locus' (pakṣa)  
#It should be present in a ‘similar case’ or a homologue (sapakṣa)  
#It should not be present in any ‘dissimilar case’ or heterologue (vipakṣa)  
:When a ‘sign’ or ‘mark’ (linga) is identified, there are three possibilities: the sign may be present in all, some, or none of the sapakṣas. Likewise, the sign may be present in all, some or none of the vipakṣas. To identify a sign, we have to assume that it is present in the pakṣa, however; that is the first condition is already satisfied. Combining these, Dignaga constructed his ‘Wheel of Reason’ (Sanskrit: [[Hetucakra]]).<ref>Ganeri, Jonardon & Tiwari, Heeraman (eds.), (1988). ''The Character of Logic in India''. Albany, NY, USA: State University of New York Press. {{ISBN|0-7914-3739-6}} (HC:acid free), p.7-8</ref>
* [[Jaina seven-valued logic]] – The ''Saptabhangivada'', the seven predicate theory may be summarized  as follows:<ref name=Ganeri>{{cite journal |last1=Ganeri |first1=Jonardon |title=Jaina Logic and the Philosophical Basis of Pluralism |journal=History and Philosophy of Logic |date=December 2002 |volume=23 |issue=4 |pages=267–281 |doi=10.1080/0144534021000051505 |url=https://philarchive.org/rec/JONJLA }}</ref>

:The seven predicate theory consists in the use of seven claims about sentences, each preceded by "arguably" or "conditionally" ({{transliteration|sa|syat}}), concerning a single object and its particular properties, composed of assertions and denials, either simultaneously or successively, and without contradiction. These seven claims are the following.

# Arguably, it (that is, some object) exists ({{transliteration|sa|syad asty eva}}). 
# Arguably, it does not exist ({{transliteration|sa|syan nasty eva}}). 
# Arguably, it exists; arguably, it doesn't exist ({{transliteration|sa|syad asty eva syan nasty eva}}). 
# Arguably, it is non-assertible ({{transliteration|sa|syad avaktavyam eva}}). 
# Arguably, it exists; arguably, it is non-assertible ({{transliteration|sa|syad asty eva syad avaktavyam eva}}). 
# Arguably, it doesn't exist; arguably, it is non-assertible ({{transliteration|sa|syan nasty eva syad avaktavyam eva}}). 
# Arguably, it exists; arguably, it doesn't exist; arguably it is non-assertible ({{transliteration|sa|syad asty eva syan nasty eva syad avaktavyam eva}}).

=== Mathematics ===
{{See also|Indian mathematics}}
{| class="wikitable Unicode" border="1" style="text-align:left; font-size:100%;" align=right
|-
! rowspan=2 | Number System
! colspan=10 | Numbers
|-
! 0 || 1 || 2 || 3 || 4 || 5 || 6 || 7 || 8 || 9
|-
!style="font-size: 75%;"| Tamil
| ೦ || ௧ || ௨ || ௩ || ௪ || ௫ || ௬ || ௭ || ௮ || ௯
|-
!style="font-size: 75%;"| Gurmukhi
| o || ੧ || ੨ || ੩ || ੪ || ੫ || ੬ || ੭ || ੮ || ੯
|-
!style="font-size: 75%;"| Odia
| ୦ || ୧ || ୨ || ୩ || ୪ || ୫ || ୬ || ୭ || ୮ || ୯
|-
! style="font-size: 75%;" | Bengali
| ০ || ১ || ২ || ৩ || ৪ || ৫ || ৬ || ৭ || ৮ || ৯
|-
! style="font-size: 75%;" | Assamese
| ০ || ১ || ২ || ৩ || ৪ || ৫ || ৬ || ৭ || ৮ || ৯
|-
!style="font-size: 75%;"| Devanagari
| ० || १ || २ || ३ || ४ || ५ || ६ || ७ || ८ || ९
|-
!style="font-size: 75%;"| Gujarati
| ૦ || ૧ || ૨ || ૩ || ૪ || ૫ || ૬ || ૭ || ૮ || ૯
|-
!style="font-size: 75%;"| Tibetan
| ༠ || ༡ || ༢ || ༣ || ༤ || ༥ || ༦ || ༧ || ༨ || ༩
|-
!style="font-size: 75%;"| Telugu
| ౦ || ౧ || ౨ || ౩ || ౪ || ౫ || ౬ || ౭ || ౮ || ౯
|-
!style="font-size: 75%;"| Kannada
| ೦ || ೧ || ೨ || ೩ || ೪ || ೫ || ೬ || ೭ || ೮ || ೯
<!-- Old Sinhala numerals not in Unicode -->
|-
!style="font-size: 75%;"| Malayalam
| ൦ || ൧ || ൨ || ൩ || ൪ || ൫ || ൬ || ൭ || ൮ || ൯
|-
!style="font-size: 75%;"| Burmese
| ၀ || ၁ || ၂ || ၃ || ၄ || ၅ || ၆ || ၇ || ၈ || ၉
|-
!style="font-size: 75%;"| Khmer
| ០ || ១ || ២ || ៣ || ៤ || ៥ || ៦ || ៧ || ៨ || ៩
|-
!style="font-size: 75%;"| Thai
| ๐ || ๑ || ๒ || ๓ || ๔ || ๕ || ๖ || ๗ || ๘ || ๙
|-
!style="font-size: 75%;"| Lao
| ໐ || ໑ || ໒ || ໓ || ໔ || ໕ || ໖ || ໗ || ໘ || ໙
|-
!style="font-size: 75%;"| Balinese
| ᭐ || ᭑ || ᭒ || ᭓ || ᭔ || ᭕ || ᭖ || ᭗ || ᭘ || ᭙
|-
!style="font-size: 75%;"| Santali
| ᱐ || ᱑ || ᱒ || ᱓ || ᱔ || ᱕ || ᱖ || ᱗ || ᱘ || ᱙
|-
!style="font-size: 75%;"| Javanese
| ꧐ || ꧑ || ꧒ || ꧓ || ꧔ || ꧕ || ꧖ || ꧗ || ꧘ || ꧙
<!-- No Baybayin numerals? -->
|}
[[File:Trig functions on unit circle.svg|thumb|right|The half-chord version of the sine function was developed by the Indian mathematician [[Aryabhatta]].]]
[[File:Brahmaguptra's theorem.svg|thumb|Brahmagupta's theorem (598{{ndash}}668) states that ''AF'' = ''FD''.]]
* [[0 (number)|Zero]] – Zero and its operation are first defined by (Hindu astronomer and mathematician) Brahmagupta in 628.<ref>{{Cite web|last=September 2017|first=Jessie Szalay-Live Science Contributor 18|title=Who Invented Zero?|url=https://www.livescience.com/27853-who-invented-zero.html|access-date=2021-05-18|website=livescience.com|date=18 September 2017}}</ref> The Babylonians used a space, and later a zero glyph, in their written [[Sexagesimal]] system, to signify the 'absent',<ref>{{cite web|url=http://yaleglobal.yale.edu/about/zero.jsp|title=The History of Zero|author=Nils-Bertil Wallin|date=19 November 2002|publisher=Yale Center for the Study of Globalization|access-date=26 December 2011|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160825124525/http://yaleglobal.yale.edu/about/zero.jsp|archive-date=25 August 2016}}</ref> the Olmecs used a positional zero glyph in their [[Vigesimal]] system, the Greeks, from [[Ptolemy]]'s [[Almagest]], in a [[Sexagesimal]] system. The Chinese used a blank, in the written form of their decimal [[Counting rods]] system. A dot, rather than a blank, was first seen to denote zero, in a decimal system, in the [[Bakhshali manuscript]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://home.ubalt.edu/ntsbarsh/zero/zero.htm|title=Zero in Four Dimensions|author=Dr. Hossein Arsham|publisher=University of Baltimore|access-date=26 December 2011}}</ref> The usage of the zero in the Bakhshali manuscript was dated from between 3rd and 4th centuries, making it the earliest known usage of a written zero, in a decimal place value system.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Devlin |first1=Hannah |title=Much ado about nothing: ancient Indian text contains earliest zero symbol |url=https://www.theguardian.com/science/2017/sep/14/much-ado-about-nothing-ancient-indian-text-contains-earliest-zero-symbol |work=The Guardian |date=13 September 2017 }}</ref>
* [[Hindu–Arabic numeral system|Hindu number system]] – With [[decimal]] place-value and a symbol for zero, this system was the ancestor of the widely used [[Arabic numeral]] system. It was developed in the Indian subcontinent between the 1st and 6th centuries CE.<ref name="st-and">{{cite web|url=http://www-history.mcs.st-and.ac.uk/HistTopics/Indian_numerals.html|title=Indian numerals|publisher=www-history.mcs.st-and.ac.uk|access-date=13 April 2015}}</ref><ref name="google">{{cite book|title=Indian Epigraphy: A Guide to the Study of Inscriptions in Sanskrit, Prakrit, and the Other Indo-Aryan Languages|author=Salomon, R.|date=1998|publisher=Oxford University Press, USA|isbn=9780195099843|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=El4-AQAAIAAJ|page=61|access-date=13 April 2015}}</ref>
* Law of signs in multiplication – The earliest use of notation for negative numbers, as [[subtrahend]], is credited by scholars to the Chinese, dating back to the 2nd century BCE.<ref name=Smith>Smith (1958), pp. 257{{ndash}}258</ref> Like the Chinese, the Indians used negative numbers as subtrahend, but were the first to establish the "law of signs" with regards to the multiplication of positive and negative numbers, which did not appear in Chinese texts until 1299.<ref name=Smith /> Indian mathematicians were aware of negative numbers by the 7th century,<ref name=Smith /> and their role in mathematical problems of debt was understood.<ref name=bourbaki49>Bourbaki (1998), page 49</ref> Mostly consistent and correct rules for working with negative numbers were formulated,<ref name=ebcal>Britannica Concise Encyclopedia (2007). ''algebra''</ref> and the diffusion of these rules led the Arab intermediaries to pass it on to Europe.,<ref name=bourbaki49/> for example (+)×(-)=(-),(-)×(-)=(+) etc.
* [[Sign convention]] – Symbols, signs and mathematical notation were employed in an early form in India by the 6th century when the mathematician-astronomer Aryabhata recommended the use of letters to represent unknown quantities.<ref name=Bell96>Bell (1992), page 96</ref> By the 7th century Brahmagupta had already begun using abbreviations for unknowns, even for multiple unknowns occurring in one complex problem.<ref name=Bell96/> Brahmagupta also managed to use abbreviations for square roots and cube roots.<ref name=Bell96/> By the 7th century fractions were written in a manner similar to the modern times, except for the bar separating the [[numerator]] and the [[denominator]].<ref name=Bell96/> A dot symbol for [[negative numbers]] was also employed.<ref name=Bell96/> The [[Bakhshali Manuscript]] displays a cross, much like the modern '+' sign, except that it symbolised subtraction when written just after the number affected.<ref name=Bell96/> The '=' sign for equality did not exist.<ref name=Bell96/> Indian mathematics was transmitted to the Islamic world where this notation was seldom accepted initially and the scribes continued to write mathematics in full and without symbols.<ref name=Bell97>Bell (1992), page 97</ref>
* Modern [[elementary arithmetic]] – Modum indorum or the method of the Indians for arithmetic operations was popularised by Al-Khwarizmi and Al-Kindi by means of their respective works such as in Al-Khwarizmi's on the Calculation with Hindu Numerals (ca. 825), On the Use of the Indian Numerals (ca. 830)<ref>{{cite web|title=Al-Kindi biography|url=http://www-gap.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/Biographies/Al-Kindi.html|website=www-gap.dcs.st-and.ac.uk|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071026091801/http://www-gap.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/Biographies/Al-Kindi.html|archive-date=26 October 2007}}</ref> as early as the 8th and 9th centuries.They, amongst other works, contributed to the diffusion of the Indian system of arithmetic in the Middle-East and the West.The significance of the development of the positional number system is described by the French mathematician Pierre Simon Laplace (1749{{ndash}}1827) who wrote:
<blockquote>"It is India that gave us the ingenuous method of expressing all numbers by the means of ten symbols, each symbol receiving a value of position, as well as an absolute value; a profound and important idea which appears so simple to us now that we ignore its true merit, but its very simplicity, the great ease which it has lent to all computations, puts our arithmetic in the first rank of useful inventions, and we shall appreciate the grandeur of this achievement when we remember that it escaped the genius of Archimedes and Apollonius, two of the greatest minds produced by antiquity."</blockquote>
* [[Chakravala method]] – The Chakravala method, a cyclic algorithm to solve [[Indeterminate equation|indeterminate]] [[quadratic equation]]s is commonly attributed to [[Bhāskara II]], (c. 1114 – 1185 CE)<ref name=SBI200>"Bhaskaracharya II". ''Students' Encyclopedia India'' (2000). (Volume 1: Adb Allah ibn al Abbas – Cypress). p. 200. {{ISBN|0-85229-760-2}}</ref><ref name=Kumar23>Kumar (2004), page 23</ref><ref name=Singh05-385>Singh, Manpal (2005), page 385</ref> although some attribute it to [[Jayadeva (mathematician)|Jayadeva]] (c. 950~1000 CE).<ref name=Plofker474>Plofker (2007), page 474</ref> Jayadeva pointed out that Brahmagupta's approach to solving equations of this type would yield infinitely large number of solutions, to which he then described a general method of solving such equations.<ref name=Goonatilake127>Goonatilake (1998), page 127 – 128</ref> Jayadeva's method was later refined by Bhāskara II in his ''[[Bijaganita]]'' treatise to be known as the Chakravala method, ''[[chakra]]'' (derived from ''cakraṃ'' चक्रं) meaning 'wheel' in [[Sanskrit]], relevant to the cyclic nature of the algorithm.<ref name= Goonatilake127/><ref name=Baber34>Baber (1996), page 34</ref> With reference to the Chakravala method, E. O. Selenuis held that no European performances at the time of Bhāskara, nor much later, came up to its marvellous height of mathematical complexity.<ref name=SBI200/><ref name= Goonatilake127/><ref name=RaoKA252>Rao K. A. (2000), page 252</ref>
* [[Trigonometric function]]s – The [[Trigonometry|trigonometric]] functions ''sine'' and ''versine'' originated in [[Indian astronomy]] along with the ''cosine'' and '' inversine '', adapted from the full-chord Greek versions (to the modern half-chord versions). They were described in detail by [[Aryabhata]] in the late 5th century, but were likely developed earlier in the [[Pancha-Siddhantika|Siddhantas]], astronomical treatises of the 3rd or 4th century.<ref name=Pingree1>Pingree (2003): {{blockquote|"Geometry, and its branch trigonometry, was the mathematics Indian astronomers used most frequently. In fact, the Indian astronomers in the third or fourth century, using a pre-Ptolemaic Greek table of chords, produced tables of sines and versines, from which it was trivial to derive cosines. This new system of trigonometry, produced in India, was transmitted to the Arabs in the late eighth century and by them, in an expanded form, to the Latin West and the Byzantine East in the twelfth century."}}</ref><ref name=MactutorTrigo>J. J. O'Connor and E.F. Robertson (1996). [http://www-gap.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/HistTopics/Trigonometric_functions.html Trigonometric functions] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130120084848/http://www-gap.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/HistTopics/Trigonometric_functions.html |date=20 January 2013 }}. [[MacTutor History of Mathematics Archive]]</ref> Later, the 6th-century astronomer [[Varahamihira]] discovered a few basic trigonometric formulas and identities, such as sin^2(x) + cos^2(x) = 1.<ref name="www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk"/>
* [[Mean value theorem]] – A special case of this [[theorem]] for inverse interpolation of the sine was first described by [[Parameshvara]] (1380–1460), from the [[Kerala School of Astronomy and Mathematics]] in [[India]], in his commentaries on [[Govindasvāmi]] and [[Bhāskara II]].<ref>J. J. O'Connor and E. F. Robertson (2000). [https://mathshistory.st-andrews.ac.uk/Biographies/Paramesvara/ Paramesvara], ''[[MacTutor History of Mathematics archive]]''.</ref>
* [[Bhāskara I's sine approximation formula]]
* [[Madhava series]] – The infinite series for {{pi}} and for the trigonometric [[sine]], [[cosine]], and [[arctangent]] is now attributed to Madhava of Sangamagrama (c. 1340 – 1425) and his Kerala school of astronomy and mathematics.<ref name=Goonatilake37>Goonatilake (1998), page 37</ref><ref name=Amma182>Amma (1999), pp. 182{{ndash}}183</ref> He made use of the series expansion of <math>\arctan x</math> to obtain an infinite series expression for {{pi}}.<ref name=Goonatilake37/> Their rational approximation of the ''error'' for the finite sum of their series are of particular interest. They manipulated the error term to derive a faster converging series for {{pi}}.<ref name=roy>Roy (1990)</ref> They used the improved series to derive a rational expression,<ref name=roy/><math>104348/33215</math> for {{pi}} correct up to eleven decimal places, ''i.e.'' <math>3.1415926539214</math>.<ref name=Borwein107>Borwein (2004), page 107</ref><ref name=Plofker481>Plofker (2007), page 481</ref> Madhava of Sangamagrama and his successors at the [[Kerala school of astronomy and mathematics]] used geometric methods to derive large sum approximations for sine, cosine, and arctangent. They found a number of special cases of series later derived by Brook Taylor series. They also found the second-order Taylor approximations for these functions, and the third-order Taylor approximation for sine.<ref name=bressoud>Bressoud (2002)</ref><ref name=Plofker>Plofker (2001)</ref><ref name=katz>Katz (1995)</ref>
* [[Power series]] – The Kerala school of astronomy and mathematics or the Kerala school was a school of mathematics and astronomy founded by Madhava of Sangamagrama in Tirur, Malappuram, Kerala, India. Their work, completed two centuries before the invention of calculus in Europe, provided what is now considered the first example of a power series (apart from geometric series). However, they did not formulate a systematic theory of differentiation and  integration.{{sfn|Stillwell|2004|p=173}}
* Finite difference [[interpolation]] – The Indian mathematician [[Brahmagupta]] presented what is possibly the first instance<ref>{{cite book|last=Van Brummelen|first=Glen|author-link=Glen Van Brummelen|title=The mathematics of the heavens and the earth: the early history of trigonometry|year=2009|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=9780691129730|pages=329}} (p.111)</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Meijering|first=Erik|title=A Chronology of Interpolation From Ancient Astronomy to Modern Signal and Image Processing|journal=Proceedings of the IEEE|date=March 2002|volume=90|issue=3|pages=319{{ndash}}342|doi=10.1109/5.993400|url=http://infoscience.epfl.ch/record/63085}}</ref> of finite difference interpolation around 665 CE.<ref name="Gupta">{{cite journal|last=Gupta|first=R. C. |title=Second-order interpolation in Indian mathematics upto the fifteenth century|journal=Indian Journal of History of Science|volume=4|issue=1 & 2|pages=86{{ndash}}98}} Reprinted as: {{cite book |doi=10.1007/978-981-13-1229-8_27 |chapter=Second-Order Interpolation in Indian Mathematics up to the Fifteenth Century |title=Gaṇitānanda |date=2019 |last1=Ramasubramanian |first1=K. |pages=263–276 |isbn=978-981-13-1228-1 }}</ref>
* [[Algebra|Algebraic abbreviations]] – The mathematician [[Brahmagupta]] had begun using abbreviations for unknowns by the 7th century.<ref name=Bell96/> He employed abbreviations for multiple unknowns occurring in one complex problem.<ref name=Bell96/> Brahmagupta also used abbreviations for [[square roots]] and [[cube roots]].<ref name=Bell96/>
* [[Permutation#Generation in lexicographic order|Systematic generation of all permutations]] – The method goes back to [[Narayana Pandit]]a in 14th century India, and has been rediscovered frequently.{{sfn|Knuth|2005|pp=1–26}}
* Discovered by the Indian mathematician, Brahmagupta (598{{ndash}}668 CE):<ref name=Plofker419-436>Plofker (2007), pp. 419{{ndash}}436</ref><ref name=Joseph306>Joseph (2000), page 306</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://jwilson.coe.uga.edu/EMT725/Class/Brooks/Brahmagupta/Brahmagupta.html|title=Brahmagupta's Formula|author=Kala Fischbein, Tammy Brooks|publisher=University of Georgia|access-date=3 November 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://mathworld.wolfram.com/BrahmaguptaMatrix.html|title=Brahmagupta Matrix|author=Weisstein, Eric W|publisher=Mathworld|access-date=3 November 2011}}</ref>
** [[Brahmagupta–Fibonacci identity]]
** [[Brahmagupta formula]] 
** [[Brahmagupta theorem]] 
* [[Combinatorics]] – the [[Vyākhyāprajñapti|Bhagavati Sutra]] had the first mention of a combinatorics problem; the problem asked how many possible combinations of tastes were possible from selecting tastes in ones, twos, threes, etc. from a selection of six different tastes (sweet, pungent, astringent, sour, salt, and bitter). The Bhagavati is also the first text to mention the [[Binomial coefficient|choose function]].<ref name="India">{{cite web|title=India|url=http://binomial.csueastbay.edu/India.html|access-date=2008-03-05|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071114201718/http://binomial.csueastbay.edu/India.html|archive-date=2007-11-14|url-status=dead}}</ref> In the second century BC, [[Pingala]] included an enumeration problem in the [[Sanskrit prosody|Chanda Sutra]] (also Chandahsutra) which asked how many ways a six-syllable metre could be made from short and long notes.<ref name="Hall">{{cite journal|first=Rachel|last=Hall|title=Math for Poets and Drummers-The Mathematics of Meter|date=2005-02-16|url=http://www.sju.edu/~rhall/Rhythms/poets.pdf|access-date=2008-03-05|archive-date=7 September 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080907145421/http://www.sju.edu/%7Erhall/Rhythms/poets.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name="Kulkarni">{{cite report |type=Preprint |last1=Kulkarni |first1=Amba |title=Recursion and Combinatorial Mathematics in Chandashaastra |date=2007 |arxiv=math/0703658 |bibcode=2007math......3658K }}</ref> Pingala found the number of metres that had <math>n</math> long notes and <math>k</math> short notes; this is equivalent to finding the [[binomial coefficients]].
* Jain texts define five different types of [[infinity]] – the infinite in one direction, the infinite in two directions, the infinite in area, the infinite everywhere, and the infinite perpetually.<ref>{{cite book | last1 = Datta | first1 = Bibhutibhusan | last2 = Singh | first2 = Awadhesh Narayan | editor1-last = Kolachana | editor1-first = Aditya | editor2-last = Mahesh | editor2-first = K. | editor3-last = Ramasubramanian | editor3-first = K. | contribution = Use of permutations and combinations in India | doi = 10.1007/978-981-13-7326-8_18 | pages = 356–376 | publisher = Springer Singapore | series = Sources and Studies in the History of Mathematics and Physical Sciences | title = Studies in Indian Mathematics and Astronomy: Selected Articles of Kripa Shankar Shukla | year = 2019| isbn = 978-981-13-7325-1 | s2cid = 191141516 }}. Revised by K. S. Shukla from a paper in ''Indian Journal of History of Science'' 27 (3): 231–249, 1992, {{MR | 1189487}}. See p. 363.</ref> and the ''[[Satkhandagama]]''
* [[Fibonacci numbers]] – This sequence was first described by [[Virahanka]] (c. 700&nbsp;CE), Gopāla (c. 1135), and [[Hemachandra]] (c. 1150),<ref name="google2">{{cite book|title=Toward a Global Science: Mining Civilizational Knowledge|author=Goonatilake, S.|date=1998|publisher=Indiana University Press|isbn=9780253333889|url=https://archive.org/details/towardglobalscie0000goon|url-access=registration|page=[https://archive.org/details/towardglobalscie0000goon/page/126 126]|access-date=13 April 2015}}</ref> as an outgrowth of the earlier writings on Sanskrit prosody by [[Pingala]] (c. 200&nbsp;BCE).
* [[Madhava's correction terms]] – Madhava's correction term is a mathematical expression attributed to [[Madhava of Sangamagrama]] (c. 1340 – c. 1425), the founder of the [[Kerala school of astronomy and mathematics]], that can be used to give a better approximation to the value of the mathematical constant {{pi}} (''pi'') than the partial sum approximation obtained by truncating the [[Madhava series|Madhava-Leibniz infinite series]] for {{pi}}. The Madhava-Leibniz infinite series for {{pi}}.
* [[Pascal's triangle]] – Described in the 6th century CE by [[Varahamihira]]<ref name="www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk">{{cite web|url=http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/Biographies/Varahamihira.html|title=Varahamihira biography|publisher=www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk|access-date=13 April 2015}}</ref> and in the 10th century by [[Halayudha]],<ref name="google3">{{cite book|title=Pascal's Arithmetical Triangle: The Story of a Mathematical Idea|author=Edwards, A.W.F.|date=2002|publisher=Johns Hopkins University Press|isbn=9780801869464|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sx-EkudWKTcC|page=201|access-date=13 April 2015}}</ref> commenting on an obscure reference by [[Pingala]] (the author of an earlier work on prosody) to the "Meru-prastaara", or the "Staircase of Mount Meru", in relation to binomial coefficients. (It was also independently discovered in the 10th or 11th century in Persia and China.)
* Integral solution to [[Pell's equation]] – About a thousand years before [[John Pell (mathematician)|Pell's]] time, Indian scholar Brahmagupta (598{{ndash}}668 CE) was able to find integral solutions to ''vargaprakṛiti'' (Pell's equation):<ref name=Pswamy416>Puttaswamy (2000), page 416</ref>{{sfn|Stillwell|2004|pp=72–73}} <math>\ x^2-Ny^2=1, </math> where ''N'' is a non-square integer, in his [[Brahmasphutasiddhanta|''Brâhma-sphuṭa-siddhânta'']] treatise.<ref name=sw101>Stillwell (2004), pages 72{{ndash}}73</ref>
* Ardhacheda – Earlier than [[Michael Stifel]], the 8th century [[Jain]] mathematician [[Virasena]] is credited with a precursor to the binary logarithm. Virasena's concept of ''ardhacheda'' has been defined as the number of times a given number can be divided evenly by two. This definition gives rise to a function that coincides with the binary logarithm on the powers of two,<ref>{{citation|page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=ymud91nTc9YC&pg=PA352 352]|title=The Crest of the Peacock: Non-European Roots of Mathematics|first=G. G.|last=Joseph|edition=3rd|publisher=Princeton University Press|year=2011|title-link=The Crest of the Peacock: Non-European Roots of Mathematics}}.</ref> but it is different for other integers, giving the [[p-adic order|2-adic order]] rather than the logarithm.<ref>See, e.g., {{citation|title=Cryptographic Applications of Analytic Number Theory: Complexity Lower Bounds and Pseudorandomness|volume=22|series=Progress in Computer Science and Applied Logic|first=Igor|last=Shparlinski|publisher=Birkhäuser|year=2013|isbn=978-3-0348-8037-4|page=35|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=z635BwAAQBAJ&pg=PA35}}.</ref>
* [[Kuṭṭaka]] – The Kuṭṭaka algorithm has much similarity with and can be considered as a precursor of the modern day [[extended Euclidean algorithm]]. The latter algorithm is a procedure for finding integers ''x'' and ''y'' satisfying the condition ''ax'' + ''by'' = [[Greatest common divisor|gcd]](''a'', ''b'').<ref>{{cite book|last1=D. E. Knuth|title=[[The Art of Computer Programming|The Art of Computer Programming Volume 2]]|date=1998|publisher=[[Pearson Education India]], 1998|isbn=9788177583359|page=342 |author1-link=D. E. Knuth }}</ref>
* [[differential calculus|Preliminary differentiation]] – Preliminary concept of differentiation and the [[differential coefficient]] were known to [[bhaskaracharya]]<ref>{{cite book |first=Roger |last=Cooke |title=The History of Mathematics: A Brief Course |publisher=Wiley-Interscience |year=1997 |chapter=The Mathematics of the Hindus |pages=[https://archive.org/details/historyofmathema0000cook/page/213 213–215] |isbn=0-471-18082-3 |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/historyofmathema0000cook/page/213}}</ref>

=== Linguistics and Literature ===
* [[Formal grammar]] / [[Formal systems]] – In his treatise [[Aṣṭādhyāyī|Astadhyayi]], [[Pāṇini|Panini]] gives formal production rules and definitions to describe the formal grammar of [[Sanskrit]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Panini biography|url=http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/Biographies/Panini.html|website=www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk}}</ref> In [[formal language|formal language theory]], a ''grammar'' (when the context is not given, often called a ''formal grammar'' for clarity) is a set of [[Production (computer science)|production rule]]s for [[String (computer science)|strings]] in a [[formal language]]. The rules describe how to form strings from the language's [[Alphabet (computer science)|alphabet]] that are valid according to the language's [[syntax (programming languages)|syntax]]. A grammar does not describe the [[semantics|meaning of the strings]] or what can be done with them in whatever context—only their form. The [[Backus-Naur form]], used to describe the [[Syntax (programming languages)|syntax]] of programming languages, applies similar concepts.<ref>{{cite journal|last= Ingerman|first= P. Z.|title= "Pāṇini Backus Form" suggested|journal= Communications of the ACM|volume= 10|issue= 3|page= 137|year= 1967|doi= 10.1145/363162.363165
|s2cid= 52817672|doi-access= free}}</ref>
*Sarvatobhadra Palindrome: The most complex palindrome, an example of which is in the [[Shishupala Vadha]] of [[Magha (poet)|Magha]]. 
<blockquote>
{{Col-begin}}
{{Col-break}}

सकारनानारकास-<br/>
कायसाददसायका ।<br/>
रसाहवा वाहसार-<br/>
नादवाददवादना ॥

<br/>

sakāranānārakāsa-<br/>
kāyasādadasāyakā<br/>
rasāhavā vāhasāra-<br/>
nādavādadavādanā.<br/>

{{Col-break}}

{| style="text-align:center; width:200px;"
|- style="color:red;"
| sa || kā || ra || nā || nā || ra || kā || sa
|-
| style="color:red;" | kā || ya || sā || da || da || sā || ya || style="color:red;" | kā
|-
| style="color:red;" | ra || sā || ha || vā || vā || ha || sā || style="color:red;" | ra
|-
| style="color:red;" | nā || da || vā || da || da || vā || da || style="color:red;" | nā
|-
| colspan=8 | (and the lines reversed)
|-
| style="color:red;" | nā || da || vā || da || da || vā || da || style="color:red;" | nā
|-
| style="color:red;" | ra || sā || ha || vā || vā || ha || sā || style="color:red;" | ra
|-
| style="color:red;" | kā || ya || sā || da || da || sā || ya || style="color:red;" | kā
|- style="color:red;"
| sa || kā || ra || nā || nā || ra || kā || sa
|}
{{col-end}}

{{blockquote|"[That army], which relished battle (''rasāhavā'') contained allies who brought low the bodes and gaits of their various striving enemies (''sakāranānārakāsakāyasādadasāyakā''), and in it the cries of the best of mounts contended with musical instruments (''vāhasāranādavādadavādanā'')."}}
</blockquote>

Palindromic Novel: The Ramakrishna Vilomakavyam by Dyvagnya Surya Pandita is an example of a narrative that, when read forward, relate the story of the Ramayana and, when read backward, relate the story of the Mahabharata.

=== Mining ===
* [[Diamond (gemstone)|Diamond mining]] and diamond tools: Diamonds were first recognised and mined in central India,<ref name=Dickinson1/><ref name=Hershey22>Hershey (2004), page 22</ref><ref name=Malkin12>Malkin (1996), page 12</ref> where significant alluvial deposits of the stone could then be found along the rivers [[Penner River|Penner]], [[Krishna River|Krishna]] and [[Godavari River|Godavari]]. It is unclear when diamonds were first mined in India, although estimated to be at least 5,000 years ago.<ref name=Hershey3,22>Hershey (2004), pages 3 & 23</ref> India remained the world's only source of diamonds until the discovery of diamonds in Brazil in the 18th century.<ref name=Thomas46>Thomas (2007), page 46</ref><ref name=Read17>Read (2005), page 17</ref><ref name=lee1>Lee, page 685</ref> [[Golconda]] served as an important centre for diamonds in [[central India]].<ref name=Wenk1>Wenk, pages 535{{ndash}}539</ref> Diamonds then were exported to other parts of the world, including Europe.<ref name=Wenk1/> Early references to diamonds in India come from [[Sanskrit]] texts.<ref name=Encarta11>MSN Encarta (2007). [http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761557986/Diamond.html ''Diamond'']. 1 November 2009.</ref> The ''[[Arthashastra]]'' of [[Kautilya]] mentions diamond trade in India.<ref name=lee1/> [[Buddhism|Buddhist]] works dating from the 4th century BCE mention it as a well-known and precious stone but don't mention the details of diamond cutting.<ref name=Dickinson1/> Another Indian description written at the beginning of the 3rd century describes strength, regularity, brilliance, ability to scratch metals, and good refractive properties as the desirable qualities of a diamond.<ref name=Dickinson1>Dickinson, pages 1{{ndash}}3</ref> A Chinese work from the 3rd century BCE mentions: "Foreigners wear it [diamond] in the belief that it can ward off evil influences".<ref name=Dickinson1/> The Chinese, who did not find diamonds in their country, initially used diamonds as a "jade cutting knife" instead of as a jewel.<ref name=Dickinson1/>
* [[Zinc mining]] and [[Zinc#Ancient use|medicinal zinc]] – Zinc was first smelted from zinc ore in India.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.australianminesatlas.gov.au/education/fact_sheets/zinc.jsp |title=Zinc-Fact sheet |publisher=Australian mines |access-date=4 November 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111107215623/http://www.australianminesatlas.gov.au/education/fact_sheets/zinc.jsp |archive-date=7 November 2011 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Zinc mines of Zawar, near [[Udaipur]], [[Rajasthan]], were active during early Christian era.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.tf.uni-kiel.de/matwis/amat/def_en/articles/metallurg_heritage_india/metallurgical_heritage_india.html |title=Mettalurgical heritage of India|author=Srinivasan, Ranganathan|publisher=Christian-Albrechts-University of Kiel |access-date=4 November 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.dli.gov.in/rawdataupload/upload/insa/INSA_1/20005afd_33.pdf|title=Smelting furnaces in Ancient India|author=Rina Shrivastva|year=1999|publisher=Indian Journal of History & Science,34(1), Digital Library of India|access-date=4 November 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120425052130/http://www.dli.gov.in/rawdataupload/upload/insa/INSA_1/20005afd_33.pdf|archive-date=25 April 2012|url-status=dead}}</ref> There are references of medicinal uses of zinc in the [[Charaka Samhita]] (300&nbsp;BCE).<ref name=Craddock>Craddock (1983)</ref> The [[Rasaratna Samuccaya]] which dates back to the Tantric period ({{circa|5th{{snd}}13th century CE}}) explains the existence of two types of ores for zinc metal, one of which is ideal for metal extraction while the other is used for medicinal purpose.<ref name=Craddock/><ref name=Biswas11>Biswas (1986), page 11</ref> India was to melt the first derived from a long experience of the old alchemy zinc by the distillation process, an advanced technique. The ancient Persians had also tried to reduce zinc oxide in an open stove, but had failed. Zawar in Tiri valley of Rajasthan is the first known old zinc smelting site in the world.{{citation needed|date=May 2024}} The distillation technique of zinc production dates back to the 12th century CE and is an important contribution of India in the world of science.

=== Space ===
* {{failed verification span|[[Earth's orbit]] ([[Sidereal year]]): The [[Hindu]] cosmological time cycles explained in the ''[[Surya Siddhanta]]'' (c.600 CE), give the average length of the sidereal year (the length of the Earth's revolution around the Sun) as 365.2563627 days, which is only a negligible 1.4 seconds longer than the modern value of 365.256363004 days.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.public.asu.edu/~mjwhite/Sidereal%20and%20tropical%20years.pdf|title=Sidereal, tropical, and anomalistic years|last=White|first=M.J.|access-date=16 May 2016}}</ref>|date=July 2024}}{{refn|group=nb|Greek astronomer [[Hipparchus]] (c. 190 – c. 120 BC) centuries earlier also calculated sidereal year to be 365 + 1/4 + 1/144 days (365.25694... days ie., 365 days 6 hours 10 min) .<ref>{{Cite book |last=Neugebauer |first=O. |url=https://archive.org/details/ahistoryofancientmathematicalastronomypt1oneugebauer1975_932_G/page/n1/mode/1up |title=A History Of Ancient Mathematical Astronomy, Vol 1 |publisher=Springer-Verlag |year=1975 |pages=293, 294}}</ref>}}
* [[Gravity|Preliminary concept of gravity]] – The concept of gravity as attracting objects towards Earth was already known to Greek scholars, [[Brahmagupta]] in sixth century CE also described gravity as an attractive force, using the term {{transl|sa|ISO|gurutvākarṣaṇa}} in which heavier objects attract towards the earth.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Pickover|first1=Clifford|title=Archimedes to Hawking: Laws of Science and the Great Minds Behind Them|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=9780199792689|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SQXcpvjcJBUC&pg=PA105|date=2008-04-16}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Bose|first1=Mainak Kumar|title=Late classical India|publisher=A. Mukherjee & Co.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nbItAAAAMAAJ&q=gravity|year=1988}}</ref><ref>*{{cite book
 | first= Amartya | last= Sen| title= The Argumentative Indian| date= 2005| page= 29 | publisher= Allen Lane | isbn= 978-0-7139-9687-6}}</ref>
* [[Periodic comet|Periodicity of comets]] – Indian astronomers by the 6th century CE believed that comets were apparitions that re-appeared periodically. This was the view expressed in the 6th century by the astronomers [[Varahamihira]] and Bhadrabahu, and the 10th-century astronomer [[Bhattotpala]] listed the names and estimated periods of certain comets, but it is unfortunately not known how these figures were calculated or how accurate they were.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ILBuYcGASxcC&pg=PA293 |page=293 |title=Exploring Ancient Skies: A Survey of Ancient and Cultural Astronomy |last1=Kelley |first1=David H. |last2=Milone |first2=Eugene F. |date=2011|publisher=Springer |isbn=9781441976246 }}</ref>
* [[Tychonic system]] –  A similar model was implicitly mentioned in the Hindu astronomical treatise ''[[Tantrasamgraha]]'' ({{Circa|1500 CE}}) by [[Nilakantha Somayaji]] of the [[Kerala school of astronomy and mathematics]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ramasubramanian |first1=K. |last2=Srinivas |first2=M. D. |last3=Sriram |first3=M. S. |title=Modification of the earlier Indian planetary theory by the Kerala astronomers (c. 1500 AD) and the implied heliocentric picture of planetary motion |journal=Current Science |date=1994 |volume=66 |issue=10 |pages=784–790 |jstor=24098820 }}</ref>{{sfn|Joseph|2000|p=408}}
* Reduction of the [[ecliptic]]: [[Achyutha Pisharadi]] discovered the techniques.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=B. |first1=E. |title=Review of The Contributions of Kerala to Sanskrit Literature |journal=Journal of the American Oriental Society |date=1960 |volume=80 |issue=4 |pages=392 |doi=10.2307/595925 |jstor=595925 }}</ref>

=== Miscellaneous ===
* [[Punch (drink)]] a [[mixed drink]] containing fruits or fruit juice that can be both alcoholic and non-alcoholic originated in the Indian subcontinent before making its way into England by passage through the [[East India Company]].<ref name=Language>Edwards, Graham and Sue. ''The Language of Drink'', Alan Sutton Publishing, 1988.</ref> This beverage is very popular among the world with many varietal flavors and brands throughout the [[beverage industry]].
*[[Hookah]] or water pipe: according to Cyril Elgood (PP.41, 110), the physician Irfan Shaikh, at the court of the Mughal emperor [[Akbar]] I (1542{{endash}}1605) invented the Hookah or water pipe used most commonly for smoking [[tobacco]].<ref name="iranica">{{cite web | url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/galyan- | title=ḠALYĀN |publisher=[[Encyclopedia Iranica]] | date=15 December 2000 | access-date=19 December 2012 | author=Razpush, Shahnaz | pages=261–265 | volume=X}}</ref><ref name=Sivaramakrishnan4-5>{{cite book |title=Tobacco and Areca Nut|last=Sivaramakrishnan |first=V. M. |year=2001 |publisher=Orient Blackswan |location=[[Hyderabad (India)|Hyderabad]] |isbn=81-250-2013-6 |pages=4–5}}</ref><ref name=Blechynden215>{{cite book |title=Calcutta, Past and Present |last=Blechynden |first=Kathleen |year=1905 |publisher=University of California |location=Los Angeles |page=215}}</ref><ref name=RousseletLouis>{{cite book |title=India and Its Native Princes: Travels in Central India and in the Presidencies of Bombay and Bengal |url=https://archive.org/details/indiaitsnativepr00loui |last=Rousselet |first=Louis |year=1875 |publisher=Chapman and Hall |location=London |page=[https://archive.org/details/indiaitsnativepr00loui/page/290 290]|isbn=9788120618879 }}</ref>

== Modern India ==

=== Medicine ===
* NexCAR19, is designed to target cancer cells carrying the CD19 protein, a marker on cancer cells, enhancing precision in treatment.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Mallapaty |first1=Smriti |title=Cutting-edge CAR-T cancer therapy is now made in India — at one-tenth the cost |journal=Nature |date=28 March 2024 |volume=627 |issue=8005 |pages=709–710 |doi=10.1038/d41586-024-00809-y |pmid=38514877 |bibcode=2024Natur.627..709M }}</ref>
* [[Urea]] stibamine –  Sir [[Upendranath Brahmachari]] synthesised [[urea]]-stibamine (carbostibamide) in 1922 and determined that it was an effective treatment for [[kala-azar]] (visceral leishmaniasis).
* [[post-kala-azar dermal leishmaniasis]] – n 1922, Brahmachari also discovered a new, deadly form of [[leishmaniasis]]. He called it dermal leishmanoid, marked by the appearance of sudden eruptions on the face of the patients without fever or other complaints. He observed it as a disease in partially cured cases of kala-azar, along with those who had no history of the disease at all.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Brahmachari|first=U. N.|date=April 1922|title=A New Form of Cutaneous Leishmaniasis—Dermal Leishmanoid|journal=The Indian Medical Gazette|volume=57|issue=4|pages=125–127 |pmc=5186533|pmid=29008368}}</ref> It has since been termed as [[post-kala-azar dermal leishmaniasis]].
* [[Cholera toxin]] – Cholera toxin was discovered in 1959 by Indian microbiologist [[Sambhu Nath De]].<ref>{{cite journal | doi=10.1002/path.1700630417 | title=An experimental study of the action of cholera toxin | year=1951 | last1=De | first1=S. N. | last2=Sarkar | first2=J. K. | last3=Tribedi | first3=B. P. | journal=The Journal of Pathology and Bacteriology | volume=63 | issue=4 | pages=707–717 | pmid=14898376 }}</ref>
* [[In vitro fertilisation]] – the second successful birth of a 'test tube baby' occurred in India just 67 days after Louise Brown was born. The girl, named Durga, was conceived in vitro using a method developed independently by [[Subhash Mukhopadhyay (physician)|Subhash Mukhopadhyay]], a physician and researcher from [[Kolkata]]. Mukhopadhyay had been performing experiments on his own with primitive instruments and a household refrigerator.<ref>{{cite magazine |date=19 October 1978 |title=India reveals deep-frozen test-tube baby |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Bik2nThZSYoC&pg=PA159 |magazine=[[New Scientist]] |page=159 |access-date=4 September 2021 |vauthors=Jayaraman KS}}</ref> However, state authorities prevented him from presenting his work at scientific conferences,<ref>{{cite web |date=5 October 2010 |title=Test tube triumph & tragedy – Nobel for UK scientist stirs memory of a Bengal doctor |url=https://www.telegraphindia.com/india/test-tube-triumph-tragedy-nobel-for-uk-scientist-stirs-memory-of-a-bengal-doctor/cid/472542 |access-date=22 May 2012 |work=[[The Telegraph (India)|The Telegraph]]}}</ref> and it was many years before Mukhopadhyay's contribution was acknowledged in works dealing with the subject.<ref>{{cite AV media |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nkEko0DybuQ |title=Test Tube Baby |date=23 August 2013 |publisher=Educational Multimedia Research Centre, Kolkata |access-date=4 September 2021 |website=[[YouTube]]}}</ref>{{better source needed|date=September 2021}}
* [[Cervical cerclage]] – was first described by [[V. N. Shirodkar]] in [[Bombay]] in 1955.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Goulding E, Lim B | title = McDonald transvaginal cervical cerclage since 1957: from its roots in Australia into worldwide contemporary practice | journal = BJOG | volume = 121 | issue = 9 | pages = 1107 | date = August 2014 | pmid = 25047486 | doi = 10.1111/1471-0528.12874 | s2cid = 21004646 | doi-access = free }}</ref>

=== Electronics and communications ===
* Direct-to-Mobile (D2M) technology, developed by Saankya Labs and IIT Kanpur, This tech will enable mobile users to stream videos on their smartphones without an active internet connection.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2024-01-20 |title=Explained: What is D2M tech that will allow mobile users to watch videos without internet connection |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/gadgets-news/explained-what-is-d2m-tech-that-will-allow-mobile-users-to-watch-videos-without-internet-connection/articleshow/107002537.cms |access-date=2025-02-26 |work=The Times of India |issn=0971-8257}}</ref>
* [[Horn antenna]] or microwave horn, One of the first horn antennas was constructed by [[Jagadish Chandra Bose]] in 1897.<ref>{{cite web
  | last = Rodriguez
  | first = Vincente
  | title = A brief history of horns
  | work = In Compliance Magazine
  | publisher = Same Page Publishing
  | date = 2010
  | url = http://www.incompliancemag.com/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=487:a-brief-history-of-horns-from-early-history-to-latest-developments&catid=24:current-issue&Itemid=126
  | access-date = 2010-11-12}}</ref><ref name="Emerson">{{cite book |doi=10.1109/MWSYM.1997.602853 |chapter=The work of Jagadis Chandra Bose: 100 years of mm-wave research |title=1997 IEEE MTT-S International Microwave Symposium Digest |date=1997 |last1=Emerson |first1=D.T. |volume=2 |pages=553–556 |isbn=0-7803-3814-6 }}</ref>
* [[Microwave]]-Indian physicist Jagadish Chandra Bose performed the first experiments with microwaves.<ref name="Emerson">{{cite book |doi=10.1109/MWSYM.1997.602853 |chapter=The work of Jagadis Chandra Bose: 100 years of mm-wave research |title=1997 IEEE MTT-S International Microwave Symposium Digest |date=1997 |last1=Emerson |first1=D.T. |volume=2 |pages=553–556 |isbn=0-7803-3814-6 }}</ref>
* [[Radio|Radiowave communication]] – In November 1894, the Indian physicist, [[Jagadish Chandra Bose]], demonstrated publicly the use of radio waves in [[Kolkata|Calcutta]].<ref>"[http://ethw.org/Jagadish_Chandra_Bose Jagadish Chandra Bose"] (biography), Engineering and Technology History Wiki (ethw.org)</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Hong |first=Sungook |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WNWMEAAAQBAJ |title=Wireless: From Marconi's Black-Box to the Audion |date=2010-01-22 |publisher=MIT Press |isbn=978-0-262-51419-4 |language=en}}</ref>
*  Low Mobility Large cell (LMLC), is a feature of 5G and is designed to enhance the signal transmission range of a basestation several times, helping service providers cost-effectively expand coverage in rural areas.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://telecom.economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/telecom-carriers-may-enhance-coverage-once-5gi-5g-standard-merge-ng-subramaniam/89407176 | title=Telecom carriers may enhance coverage once 5Gi, 5G standards merge: NG Subramaniam - ET Telecom }}</ref>
* [[Waveguide]] – [[Jagadish Chandra Bose]] researched [[millimetre wave]]lengths using waveguides, and in 1897 described to the Royal Institution in London his research carried out in Kolkata.<ref name=emerson>{{cite book |doi=10.1109/MWSYM.1997.602853 |chapter=The work of Jagadis Chandra Bose: 100 years of mm-wave research |title=1997 IEEE MTT-S International Microwave Symposium Digest |date=1997 |last1=Emerson |first1=D.T. |volume=2 |pages=553–556 |isbn=0-7803-3814-6 }}</ref>
* Phantom connectivity, a system for providing a higher level security to data communication in computer networks developed by [[ISRO]]. Phantom connectivity model enables organization to copy users download data from Internet to Intranet without connecting both the networks.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://patents.google.com/patent/WO2008004248A1/en | title=A system and method for secured data communication in computer networks by phantom connectivity }}</ref>

=== Computers and programming languages ===
* Autolay, is an interactive GUI CAD software for the design of aircraft composite components developed by [[Aeronautical Development Agency]], this tool was developed in late 1980's and used by all big aerospace companies such as [[Boeing]], [[Airbus]] and [[Dassault Systèmes]]<ref>{{cite book | url=https://dl.acm.org/doi/10.5555/645465.653819 | isbn=978-0-444-81564-4 | title=AUTOLAY - an Interactive Graphics System for the Design of Aircraft Composite Components | date=24 February 1993 | pages=205–214 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/bengaluru/autolay-software-makes-ada-a-global-leader/articleshow/1478879143.cms | title=Autolay software makes ADA a global leader | work=The Times of India | date=29 July 2001 }}</ref>
* [[Haptik|chatbot-based conversational AI]], one of early modern AI/ML based chatbot was released by [[Haptik|Haptik.ai]] in 2013, when chatbot term was not common.<ref>https://www.firstpost.com/tech/news-analysis/inside-haptik-ai-a-made-in-india-and-for-india-personal-assistant-and-end-to-end-chatbot-platform-4128927.html</ref><ref>https://www.cnbctv18.com/technology/haptik-co-founder-aakrit-vaish-users-will-interact-with-the-internet-voice-first-potentially-4249401.htm</ref><ref>https://www.expresscomputer.in/artificial-intelligence-ai/pioneering-conversational-ai/29485/</ref>
* [[Visual J Sharp|Visual J#]] – A transitional [[programming language]] for programmers of [[Java (programming language)|Java]] and [[Visual J++]] languages, so they could use their existing knowledge and applications on [[.NET Framework]]. It was developed by the [[Hyderabad, Telangana|Hyderabad]]-based [[HITEC City#Microsoft Hyderabad Campus|Microsoft India Development Center at HITEC City]] in India.<ref>S Prasanna, [http://www.expresscomputeronline.com/20020729/indnews3.shtml Microsoft's VJ#.Net is made in India] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131128170355/http://computer.financialexpress.com/20020729/indnews3.shtml |date=28 November 2013 }}, ''Express Computer'', 29 July 2002 – invalid link !</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=The Hindu Business Line : Microsoft lines up big plans for Hyderabad centre|url=http://www.thehindubusinessline.com/bline/2002/08/15/stories/2002081500530700.htm|website=thehindubusinessline.com}}</ref>
* [[Julia (programming language)|Julia]] is a high-level, dynamic programming language. Its features are well suited for numerical analysis and computational science. [[Viral B. Shah]] an Indian computer scientist contributed to the development of the language in Bangalore while also actively involved in the initial design of the Aadhaar project in India using [[India Stack]].<ref>{{cite web | url=https://qz.com/india/963225/julia-an-indian-computer-scientist-built-a-new-programming-language-from-bengaluru | title=Not just "IT coolies": An Indian computer scientist built a new programming language in Bengaluru | date=20 April 2017 }}</ref>
* [[Kojo (programming language)|Kojo]] – A [[programming language]] and [[integrated development environment]] (IDE) for computer programming and learning. Kojo is an [[open-source software]]. It was created, and is actively developed, by Lalit Pant, a computer programmer and teacher living in [[Dehradun]], India.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.kogics.net/sf:kojo |title=Kojo home page |access-date=29 August 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://wiki.kogics.net/forum/t-263574 |title=Interview: Scala Learning Environment on the NetBeans Platform |date=19 February 2010 |author=Geertjan Wielenga |publisher=DZone |access-date=29 August 2012}}</ref>
* [[RISC-V]] ISA (microprocessor) implementations (a US standard, not from India, but some implementations are such as those below):
** [[SHAKTI (microprocessor)|SHAKTI]] – Open Source, Bluespec System [[Verilog]] definitions, for FinFET implementations of the ISA, have been created at [[IIT Madras]], and are hosted on [[GitLab]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=7 Jul 2021 |title=India's home-grown microprocessor Shakti is now part of tech-giant Altair's offerings |url=https://www.iitm.ac.in/happenings/press-releases-and-coverages/indias-home-grown-microprocessor-shakti-now-part-tech-giant}}</ref>
** [[VEGA Microprocessors]] – India's first indigenous 64-bit, superscalar, out-of-order, multi-core RISC-V Processor design, developed by [[C-DAC]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Aufranc (CNXSoft) |first=Jean-Luc |date=2022-02-04 |title=India goes RISC-V with VEGA processors – CNX Software |url=https://www.cnx-software.com/2022/02/04/india-goes-risc-v-with-vega-processors/ |access-date=2022-07-13 |website=CNX Software – Embedded Systems News }}</ref>
* [[File Transfer Protocol]] (FTP) – A standard communication protocol used for the transfer of computer files from a server to a client on a computer network. FTP is built on a client–server model architecture using separate control and data connections between the client and the server. [[Abhay Bhushan]]  is the author of the File Transfer Protocol (which he started working on while he was a student at IIT-Kanpur) and the early versions of email protocols<ref>{{Cite web |title=FTP Is Almost 50 Years Old—and It's Ready to Retire |url=https://www.vice.com/en/article/5dzx43/ftp-is-almost-50-years-oldand-its-ready-to-retire |access-date=2022-08-10 |website=www.vice.com |date=29 September 2020 }}</ref>
* [[TCS BaNCS]], was one of the first core banking software started implemented in late 1970s and released in early 80s.

=== Construction, civil engineering and architecture ===
* Coal Mine to PSP, [[Coal India]] will turn abandoned mines or de-coaled mine to [[Pumped-storage hydroelectricity|Pumped Storage Projects(PSP)]] with help  of [[NHPC]] hence saving huge amount of capital for development of reservoir or dams.<ref>https://www.livemint.com/companies/news/coal-india-and-nhpc-join-forces-to-convert-abandoned-mines-into-pump-storage-projects-boosting-energy-transition-11695059193255.html {{Bare URL inline|date=August 2024}}</ref>
* {{CO2}}-treated-C&D, researchers at the Centre for Sustainable Technologies (CST), IISc, are exploring ways to store carbon dioxide from industrial flue gas in excavated soil in Construction and Demolition (C&D) waste. the effect of injecting carbon dioxide gas into clayey soil—typically excavated from construction sites. This resulted in better stabilization of clay by cement and lime, and reduced the surface area, pore volume and lime reactivity of clay in soil, thereby improving the bulk engineering performance of the material.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.msn.com/en-in/news/other/carbon-dioxide-to-replace-natural-sand-in-construction/ar-BB1kF1Y4 | title=MSN | website=[[MSN]] }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://techxplore.com/news/2024-03-paving-paths-sustainable.html | title=Paving new paths for sustainable construction }}</ref>
* [[Chenab Rail Bridge|Chenab rail bridge]], is the world's first blast proof bridge.<ref>{{cite news | url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/business/india-business/chenab-rail-bridge-achieves-big-milestone-indian-railways-conducts-train-trials-on-worlds-highest-railway-bridge-check-top-facts/photostory/111147295.cms?picid=111147305 | title=Chenab Rail Bridge Achieves Big Milestone! Indian Railways Conducts Train Trials on World's Highest Railway Bridge - Check Top Facts | newspaper=The Times of India | date=20 June 2024 }}</ref>
* Rib & spine/Spine & Wing technique, [[National Highways Authority of India|NHAI]] has developed a flyover design which allows to save cost, time, minimum material usage and allows light under the flyover using the same technique.
* (I)-TM Tunneling technique:(I)-TM as Himalayan tunnelling method for tunnelling through the Himalayan geology to build tunnels in Jammu and Kashmir. Engineers decided to provide rigid supports using 'ISHB' as against the lattice girder method used in the New Austrian Tunnelling Method.ISHB uses nine-metre pipes in the mountains. It is called pipe roofing. Engineers made an umbrella using these perforated poles and filled them with PU grout.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://infra.economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/railways/engineers-develop-new-tunnelling-method-for-kashmir-rail-link-project/104652328 | title=Engineers develop new tunnelling method for Kashmir rail link project - ET Infra }}</ref><ref>{{cite news | url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/engineers-develop-new-tunnelling-method-for-kashmir-rail-link-project/articleshow/104627683.cms?from=mdr | title=Engineers develop new tunnelling method for Kashmir rail link project | newspaper=The Times of India | date=22 October 2023 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.metrorailnews.in/engineers-develop-himalayan-tunnelling-method-for-katra-banihal-section-of-the-kashmir-rail-link-project/ | title=Engineers Develop Himalayan Tunnelling Method for Katra-Banihal Section of the Kashmir rail Link Project | date=23 October 2023 }}</ref>
* waterproof roads, zydex industries has developed waterproof road by forming a skin like layer that is water resistant using inhouse silane nanotechnology.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.thehindubusinessline.com/companies/zydex-industries-develops-nanotechnology-solution-for-durable-roads/article66396007.ece | title=Zydex Industries develops nanotechnology solution for durable roads | date=18 January 2023 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.constructionweekonline.in/business/potholes-to-become-history-with-smooth-ride-breakthrough-by-zydex | title=Potholes to become history with smooth ride; breakthrough by Zydex - Construction Week India | date=19 January 2023 }}</ref>
* [[Plastic road]] are made entirely of plastic or of composites of plastic with other materials. Plastic roads are different from standard roads in the respect that standard roads are made from asphalt concrete, which consists of mineral aggregates and asphalt. Most plastic roads sequester [[plastic waste]] within the asphalt as an aggregate. Plastic roads first developed by [[Rajagopalan Vasudevan]] in 2001<ref>{{Cite news |last=Deloney |first=Matthew L. |date=2021-12-30 |title=What Are Plastic Roads {{!}} How to Make Plastic Roads {{!}} Who Invented Plastic Roads {{!}} First Man Made Plastic Road {{!}} Advantages & Disadvantages of Plastic Roads |work=CivilJungle |url=https://civiljungle.com/plastic-roads/ |access-date=2022-07-25}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-02-09 |title=This Indian Genius Created Roads With Plastic Waste, Now Entire World Uses His Technique |url=https://www.indiatimes.com/technology/science-and-future/meet-padma-shree-r-vasudevan-who-made-roads-stronger-with-waste-plastic-that-saves-our-planet-505994.html |access-date=2022-07-25 |website=IndiaTimes }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Lee |first=Chermaine |title=Could plastic roads make for a smoother ride? |url=https://www.bbc.com/future/article/20210302-could-plastic-roads-make-for-a-smoother-ride |access-date=2022-07-25 |website=www.bbc.com |date=3 March 2021 }}</ref>

=== Finance and banking ===
* [[Payments bank]] is an Indian new model of banks conceptualised by the Reserve Bank of India (RBI) without issuing credit.

=== Paleontology ===
* In 2024, one of the longest snakes to ever exist, [[Vasuki indicus]], was discovered by scientists from the [[Indian Institutes of Technology|Indian Institute of Technology]]. The snake was estimated to be between 10.9 and 15.2 metres in length and lived 47 million years ago. The fossilised vertebrae of Vasuki indicus were discovered in a lignite mine in [[Gujarat]]. It was likely a slow moving predator who killed its prey through constriction.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ghosh |first1=Sahana |title=Meet Vasuki indicus, among the longest snakes that ever lived |journal=Nature India |date=22 April 2024 |doi=10.1038/d44151-024-00048-0 }}</ref>
* In 2018, scientists from the [[Geological Survey of India]] and the Indian Institute of Technology discovered the fossil remains of a previously unknown dinosaur species in the [[Thar Desert]] region of Jaisalmer, Rajasthan. The dinosaur is named [[Tharosaurus indicus]], after the Thar Desert and India.<ref>{{cite news | url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/india/iit-scientist-unearth-ancient-indian-dinosaur-heres-what-they-discovered-about-the-earliest-dinosaur-tharosaurus-indicus/articleshow/102523489.cms?from=mdr | title=IIT scientist unearth ancient Indian dinosaur; here's what they discovered about the earliest dinosaur, Tharosaurus Indicus | newspaper=The Economic Times | date=8 August 2023 }}</ref>

=== Zoology ===
* The world's first white tiger was Mohan, a mutant Bengal tiger captured in 1951 by Maharaja Martand Singh of Rewa. These type of tiger are found in [[White Tiger Safari & Zoo Mukundpur]]

=== Genetics ===
* [[Amrapali (mango)|Amrapali]] mango – A named mango cultivar introduced in 1971 by Dr. Pijush Kanti Majumdar at the Indian Agriculture Research Institute in Delhi.
* Asmon, is a plant based drug that is used to treat bronchial asthma developed by [[Council of Scientific and Industrial Research|CSIR]].<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.csir.res.in/csir-milestones | title=CSIR Milestones &#124; Council of Scientific & Industrial Research }}</ref>
* Mynvax – The world's first "warm" COVID-19 vaccine, developed by [[Indian Institute of Science|IISc]], capable of withstanding {{convert|37|°C}} for a month and neutralise all coronavirus variants of concern.<ref>{{cite journal|title=Petrus Jansen van Vuren, et al (2022)|year= 2022|last1= Van Vuren|first1= Petrus Jansen|last2= McAuley|first2= Alexander J.|last3= Kuiper|first3= Michael J.|last4= Singanallur|first4= Nagendrakumar B.|last5= Bruce|first5= Matthew P.|last6= Riddell|first6= Shane|last7= Goldie|first7= Sarah|last8= Mangalaganesh|first8= Shruthi|last9= Chahal|first9= Simran|last10= Drew|first10= Trevor W.|last11= Blasdell|first11= Kim R.|last12= Tachedjian|first12= Mary|last13= Caly|first13= Leon|last14= Druce|first14= Julian D.|last15= Ahmed|first15= Shahbaz|last16= Khan|first16= Mohammad Suhail|last17= Malladi|first17= Sameer Kumar|last18= Singh|first18= Randhir|last19= Pandey|first19= Suman|last20= Varadarajan|first20= Raghavan|last21= Vasan|first21= Seshadri S.|journal= Viruses|volume= 14|issue= 4|page= 800|doi= 10.3390/v14040800|pmid= 35458530|pmc= 9031315|doi-access= free}}</ref>
* [[ZyCoV-D]] vaccine – The world's first DNA-based vaccine for humans.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Mallapaty |first1=Smriti |title=India's DNA COVID vaccine is a world first – more are coming |journal=Nature |date=9 September 2021 |volume=597 |issue=7875 |pages=161–162 |doi=10.1038/d41586-021-02385-x |pmid=34475553 |bibcode=2021Natur.597..161M |s2cid=237401121 }}</ref>

=== Metallurgy, manufacturing, and industry ===
* Carbon nitride solar reactor – In September 2021, A team from the [[Institute of Nano Science and Technology|Institute of Nano Science and Technology (INST), Mohali]], has fabricated a prototype reactor which operates under natural sunlight to produce hydrogen at a scale of around 6.1 litres in eight hours. They have used an earth-abundant chemical called carbon nitrides as a catalyst for the purpose.<ref>https://www.tribuneindia.com/news/chandigarh/mohali-institute-develops-reactor-for-cost-effective-production-of-hydrogen-using-sunlight-water-318138 {{Bare URL inline|date=August 2024}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://dst.gov.in/large-scale-reactor-developed-cost-effective-production-hydrogen-using-sunlight-and-water | title=Large-scale reactor developed for cost-effective production of hydrogen using sunlight and water &#124; Department of Science & Technology }}</ref>
* High ash coal gasification (coal to methanol) – The central government gave the country world's first 'coal to methanol' (CTM) plant built by the [[Bharat Heavy Electricals Limited]] (BHEL). The plant was inaugurated in BHEL's Hyderabad unit, The pilot project is the first that uses the gasification method for converting high-ash coal into methanol. Handling of high ash and heat required to melt this high amount of ash is a challenge in the case of Indian coal, which generally has high ash content. Bharat Heavy Electricals Limited has developed the fluidized bed gasification technology suitable for high ash Indian coals to produce syngas and then convert syngas to methanol with 99% purity.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://thelogicalindian.com/trending/coal-to-methanol-bhel-33320|title = First of Its Kind! Central Government Inaugurates India's 'Coal to Methanol' Plant Made by BHEL|date = 17 January 2022}}</ref>
* [[Magnetically controlled shunt reactor|Controlled shunt reactor]] – In 2002, [[Bharat Heavy Electricals Limited]] has successfully developed a first-of-its-kind in the world device for improving power transfer capability and reducing transmission losses in the country's highest rating (400 kV) transmission lines.The device is called Controlled Shunt Reactor.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/business/india-business/bhel-develops-device-to-reduce-td-losses/articleshow/28959774.cms|title=Bhel develops device to reduce T&D losses|first=Our|last=Correspondent|newspaper=The Times of India |date=21 November 2002|via=Press Trust of India}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/india/bhel-to-supply-device-for-high-voltage-systems/story-KIzepl351g9Xw0XREukAqI.html|title=The first-of-its-kind Controlled Shunt Reactor (CSR) has been developed by BHEL in-house, said a BHEL release. The device, which operates automatically, depending on system requirement in less than 10 milliseconds, improves power transfer capability of transmission lines|first=HT|last=Correspondent|newspaper=The Hindustan Times |date=7 October 2006|via=HT Correspondent, Bhopal}}</ref>
* [[Defence Metallurgical Research Laboratory|DMR 1700]] steel – For several high-technology applications, such as military hardware and aerospace, need to possess ultrahigh strength (UHS; minimum yield strength of 1380 MPa (200 ksi)) coupled with high fracture toughness in order to meet the requirement of minimum weight while ensuring high reliability.
* [[Defence Metallurgical Research Laboratory|DMR SN 742]] is a nickel-based superalloy developed by the Defence Metallurgical Research Laboratory (DMRL) in India. It is specifically designed for aero-engine applications, such as high-pressure compressors (HPC) and turbine rotors (HPT) in gas turbine engines.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.iadb.in/2022/02/23/development-of-nickel-base-superalloy-components-for-aeroengine-applications/ | title=Development of Nickel-Base Superalloy & Components for Aeroengine Applications &#124; Indian Aerospace and Defence Bulletin - News for aerospace and defence in India | date=23 February 2022 }}</ref><ref>https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=4902841</ref>
* GTM-900 is a high-temperature alpha-beta titanium alloy developed by [[National Aerospace Laboratories]] and [[Defence Metallurgical Research Laboratory|DMRL]] used for components like compressor blades due to its strength and creep resistance at elevated temperatures.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.nal.res.in/hi/node/2078 | title=High strain rate behavior of GTM-900 titanium alloy - CSIR - NAL }}</ref><ref>https://nopr.niscpr.res.in/bitstream/123456789/20553/1/IJEMS%209(5)%20351-358.pdf</ref>
* TITAN 26A and TITAN 29A, These are high-performance titanium-based alloys which are known for their high strength, creep resistance, and corrosion resistance, particularly in high-temperature environments.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.drdo.gov.in/drdo/high-temperature-titanium-alloys-components | title=High Temperature Titanium Alloys & Components &#124; Defence Research and Development Organisation - DRDO, Ministry of Defence, Government of India }}</ref>
* Magnesium-lithium alloy grade(Mg-9Li-7.5Al-1.2Sn), ISRO has successfully mastered melting and casting of this alloy using inert atmosphere. It is now possible to melt up to 20&nbsp;kg of this alloy and gave stable properties up to 1000C.<ref>https://www.inae.in/wp-content/themes/fortuna-child/img/Metallurgy%20REPORT.pdf</ref><ref>https://www.ias.ac.in/article/fulltext/boms/017/06/0733-0745</ref>
* [[Jindal Stainless Limited|JD-1]] alloy – A special lightweight alloy developed by [[Jindal Stainless Limited|Jindal Defence]] with a minimum guaranteed hardness of 500 HB. It can be used in aerospace, small arms, and engineering solutions. It is mainly used in armoured jacket.
* [[Polymetallic nodules]], India is considered a pioneer in the exploration of polymetallic nodules, In 1981, Indian scientists recovered manganese nodules, marking the beginning of deep sea exploration in the country.In 1987, India became the first country to receive Pioneer Investor status from the International Seabed Authority (ISA).<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.idsa.in/issuebrief/indias-deep-sea-mining-endeavours-MSrivastava-270923#:~:text=In%201987%2C%20India%20became%20the%20first%20country,and%20developmental%20activities%20for%20the%20polymetallic%20nodules | title=India's Deep Sea Mining Endeavours: A Search for Climate Solutions in Deep Waters &#124; Manohar Parrikar Institute for Defence Studies and Analyses }}</ref><ref>https://drs.nio.res.in/drs/bitstream/handle/2264/754/Refresher_Course_Mar_Geol_Geophys_2007_Lecture_Notes_52.pdf;jsessionid=CE99C6BA341E8AE14A9E5076EDED73A4?sequence=2</ref>
* Sorption-enhanced steam methane reforming (SESMR) – In April 2022, the scientists from CSIR-Indian Institute of Chemical Technology (CSIR-IICT), Hyderabad developed a fluidized bed reactor (FBR) facility in Hyderabad to perform sorption enhanced steam methane reforming (SESMR) to achieve clean hydrogen in its purest form. The team of scientists have designed a hybrid material to simulate capturing carbon dioxide in-situ (onsite) and converting it into clean hydrogen from non-fuel grade bioethanol.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.mercomindia.com/indian-scientists-produce-clean-h2-with-carbon-capture-efficiency | title=Indian Scientists Produce Clean H2 with Carbon Capture Efficiency of 99.58% - Mercom India }}</ref>
* [[Harichand Megha Dalaya|Spray-drying buffalo milk]] – The collective consensus of dairy experts worldwide was that buffalo milk could not be spray-dried due to its high fat content. Harichand Megha Dalaya & his invention of the spray dry equipment, led to the world's first buffalo milk spray-dryer, at Amul Dairy in Gujarat.
* [[Neem-coated urea]] is an agriculture fertilizer in which the urea is neem oil-coated. The coating of neem slows the nitrification of urea thereby helps in increased absorption of nutrients in the soil as well as reduces groundwater pollution.<ref>{{cite journal | doi=10.1038/s41598-022-12708-1 | title=A benchmark study on economic impact of Neem Coated Urea on Indian agriculture | date=2022 | last1=Ramappa | first1=K. B. | last2=Jadhav | first2=Vilas | last3=Manjunatha | first3=A. V. | journal=Scientific Reports | volume=12 | issue=1 | page=9082 | pmid=35641568 | pmc=9156691 | bibcode=2022NatSR..12.9082R }}</ref>
* Jackal steel –  An advanced grade high-strength, low-alloy steel. The technology of Jackal steel has been passed on to Steel Authority of India Limited (SAIL) and MIDHANI for its bulk production.
* High-Rise Pantograph – The new-design world record pantograph, developed completely in-house for use in DFC & other freight routes with height of {{convert|7.5|m}}.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.irgreenri.gov.in/tractiondistribution.html | title=New Technological Developments in Electric Traction }}</ref>
* Commercial [[Carbon capture and utilization|CCU]] plant: Tuticorin Alkali Chemicals and Fertilizers Limited (TFL) partnered with Carbon Clean to create the world's first fully commercial CCU plant. The 10&nbsp;MW facility captures coal-fired boiler flue gas and uses it to deliver industrial quality {{CO2}}. The 10&nbsp;MW facility captures coal-fired boiler flue gas and uses it to deliver industrial quality {{CO2}}.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.edie.net/partner-content/in-action-the-worlds-first-fully-commercial-carbon-capture-and-utilisation-plant/ | title=In action: The world's first fully commercial carbon capture and utilisation plant - edie }}</ref> The technology has been developed by Carbon Clean Solutions, headquartered in London – a start-up by two Indian engineers focusing on carbon dioxide separation technology.There are many chemicals exported out of India where {{CO2}} is the raw material.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.voanews.com/a/indian-factory-uses-envronmentally-friendly-technology-to-utilize-carbon-emissions/3665619.html | title=Technology Helps Indian Factory Convert Carbon Emissions | date=6 January 2017 }}</ref>
* Triple-stack container freight train<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=n5H8pSxzTsA | title=RDSO triple stack container trials on WDFC_DFCCIL | website=[[YouTube]] | date=10 March 2022 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jYsjLlOds1I | title=Trials to reduce per-unit logistics cost by Indian Railways | website=[[YouTube]] | date=17 October 2023 }}</ref> – In order to ensure new streams of traffic and commodities and to bring about a modal shift, the DFC is undertaking trials for running smaller than usual containers, known as dwarf containers (where the container height is lower by 660&nbsp;mm than normal containers), in triple-stack formation to further improve the profitability of train operations. It may be possible to run these as double-stack on conventional routes and triple-stack on routes with high-rise OHE, once the trials are successfully completed.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.globalrailwayreview.com/article/132297/innovative-logistics-stacking-small-containers-optimised-loading/ | title=Innovative logistics: Stacking small containers for optimised loading }}</ref>

=== Metrology ===
[[File:Crescograph - Jagadish Chandra Bose Museum - Bose Institute - Kolkata 2011-07-26 4040 Cropped.JPG|thumb|150px|Crescograph, Bose Institute, Kolkata]]
* [[Crescograph]] – The crescograph, a device for measuring growth in plants, was invented in the early 20th century by the Bengali scientist Sir [[Jagadish Chandra Bose]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.edsanders.com/bose|title=Jagadis Bose Research on Measurement of Plant Growth|access-date=5 August 2008}}</ref><ref>Geddes, pages 173{{ndash}}176</ref>
* [[Shearing interferometer]] – Invented by M.V.R.K. Murty, a type of Lateral [[Shearing Interferometer]] utilises a laser source for measuring refractive index.<ref>{{cite web|title=Definition of Murty interferometer|url=http://www.photonics.com/EDU/Term.aspx?TermID=5627|website=Photonics.com}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Riley|first1=M. E.|last2=Gusinow|first2=M. A.|title=Laser beam divergence utilizing a lateral shearing interferometer|journal=Applied Optics|date=1 October 1977|volume=16|issue=10|pages=2753{{ndash}}6|doi=10.1364/AO.16.002753|pmid=20174226|bibcode=1977ApOpt..16.2753R}}</ref>

=== Rocket science and jet propulsion===
* [[Rohini (rocket family)|Air-breathing rocket]], On 23 July 2024 ISRO successfully fired world's first air-breathing rocket, using a modified Rohini 560 rocket.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.isro.gov.in/ISROflightexperimentAirBreathingPropulsionSystem.html | title=ISRO conducts flight experiment of Air Breathing Propulsion System }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.indiatoday.in/science/story/isro-successfully-conducts-second-test-of-air-breathing-propulsion-technology-2570706-2024-07-23 | title=Isro successfully conducts second test of Air Breathing Propulsion Technology | date=23 July 2024 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news | url=https://www.thehindu.com/sci-tech/science/isro-conducts-experimental-flight-of-air-breathing-propulsion-system/article68432854.ece | title=ISRO conducts experimental flight of air-breathing propulsion system | newspaper=The Hindu | date=23 July 2024 }}</ref>
* [[Solid Fuel Ducted Ramjet]], is a jet propulsion technology which uses solid propellant, developed by [[Defence Research and Development Organisation]].
* [[Small Satellite Launch Vehicle]], is a multi-stage solid propellent rocket that is cost-effective and very less complex used to deliver micro-satellites less than 500&nbsp;kg weight. it is innovative as its three stages are solid propellent making it very efficient.<ref>{{cite news | url=https://www.thehindu.com/opinion/editorial/space-to-learn-the-hindu-editorial-on-the-failure-of-isros-maiden-small-satellite-launch-vehicle-mission/article65750371.ece | title=Space to learn: The Hindu Editorial on the failure of ISRO's maiden small satellite launch vehicle mission | newspaper=The Hindu | date=9 August 2022 }}</ref>

=== Science and technology ===
* Bipyrazole Organic Crystals, the piezoelectric molecules developed by [[Indian Institutes of Science Education and Research|IISER]] scientists recombine following mechanical fracture without any external intervention, autonomously self-healing in milliseconds with crystallographic precision.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.deccanherald.com/science-and-environment/indian-scientists-make-breakthrough-discovery-of-material-that-repairs-itself-1012430.html|title = Indian scientists make breakthrough discovery of material that repairs itself|date = 24 July 2021}}</ref>
* SEBEX 2, is a high performance explosive, it  is said to be 2.01 times more lethal than TNT and most powerful non-nuclear explosives in the world. The Indian Navy has certified the explosive.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.news18.com/explainers/whats-indias-new-explosive-sebex-2-that-will-improve-lethality-of-warheads-military-tech-explained-8951573.html | title=What's India's New Explosive SEBEX 2 That Will Improve Lethality of Warheads? Military Tech Explained | date=2 July 2024 }}</ref>
* [[Silica fiber|Silica fiber based composite]] or Silica-Silica composite, In 2012 [[ISRO]] developed world's first pure silica fiber composite without carbon element known as ''silica fiber-silica matrix composite'' and also a new technology for developing silica fibres by sol-gel process. These fibres can be used for high temperature insulation up to 1500C and cheaper than Carbon fiber composite. Silica-silica composite are prepared by leaching glass cloth with hydrochloric acid, rinsing to remove acid therefrom, vacuum drying, moulding and treating with ethyl silicate and cationic starch binder further drying and sintering.<ref>https://www.isro.gov.in/media_isro/pdf/capacitybuilding/ISROIPRApril2024.pdf</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.vssc.gov.in/SilicaFibres.html | title=Silica Fibres }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://allindianpatents.com/patents/253851-high-purity-porous-silica-fiber-silica-matrix-composite-and-a-method-of-manufacturing-thereof.html | title=Indian Patents. 253851:HIGH PURITY POROUS SILICA FIBER - SILICA MATRIX COMPOSITE AND a METHOD OF MANUFACTURING THEREOF }}</ref>
* Single-crystalline Scandium Nitride, that has the ability to convert infrared light into energy, Scientists based in Jawaharlal Nehru Centre for Advanced Scientific Research (JNCASR), Bengaluru have discovered a novel material that can emit, detect, and modulate infrared light with high efficiency making it useful for solar and thermal energy harvesting and for optical communication devices.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.electronicsforu.com/news/whats-new/this-material-can-convert-infrared-light-to-renewable-energy | title=This Material Can Convert Infrared Light to Renewable Energy | date=11 July 2022 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://thelogicalindian.com/trending/indian-researchers-discover-material-which-turns-infrared-light-into-renewable-energy-36452 | title=Groundbreaking! Indian Researchers Discover Material Which Turns Infrared Light into Renewable Energy | date=10 July 2022 }}</ref>
* Low-threshold gain lasers, researchers from IISER, Bhopal have made a breakthrough in field of low threshold gain lasers using crystals of cesium lead bromide they are able to produce high-intensity lasers with very low energy output.<ref>{{cite news | url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/bhopal/iiser-bhopal-breakthrough-to-produce-high-intensity-lasers/articleshow/98530310.cms | title=IISER Bhopal breakthrough to produce high-intensity lasers | newspaper=The Times of India | date=10 March 2023 }}</ref>
* [[Indian Ocean Dipole]] is an unusual pattern in the ocean-atmosphere system of the equatorial Indian Ocean that influences the monsoon and can offset the adverse impact of El Nino. It is typically characterized by cooler than normal eastern equatorial Indian Ocean and warmer than normal west and unusual equatorial easterly winds. It was discovered in Centre for Atmospheric And Oceanic Sciences, [[Indian Institute of Science|IISc.]] team led by NH Saji in 1999.<ref>{{Cite journal|url=http://eprints.iisc.ac.in/17757/|title = A dipole mode in the tropical Indian Ocean|journal = Nature|date = 23 September 1999|volume = 401|issue = 6751|pages = 360–363|last1 = Saji|first1 = N. H.|last2 = Goswami|first2 = B. N.|last3 = Vinayachandran|first3 = P. N.|last4 = Yamagata|first4 = T.|doi = 10.1038/43854|pmid = 16862108|bibcode = 1999Natur.401..360S|s2cid = 4427627}}</ref>
* [[Iron]] [[Ion]] [[Electric battery|battery]],In 2019 world's 1st iron-ion battery was first invented by team of researchers in IIT Madras.<ref>{{cite news | url=https://www.thehindu.com/sci-tech/science/iit-madras-registers-initial-success-with-iron-ion-battery/article28976853.ece | title=IIT Madras registers initial success with iron ion battery | newspaper=The Hindu | date=10 August 2019 | last1=Prasad | first1=R. }}</ref>
* Solution combustion synthesis (SCS) was accidentally discovered in 1988 at Indian Institute of Science (IISc), Bengaluru, India. SCS involves an exothermic redox chemical reaction between an oxidizer like metal nitrate and a fuel in an aqueous medium.<ref>https://ipc.iisc.ac.in/includes/kcpbook/SCS-Part-I.pdf {{Bare URL PDF|date=March 2022}}</ref>
* [[Defluoridation|Nalgonda Technique]] is a technique for deflouridation to reduce the flouride levels in water developed by [[National Environmental Engineering Research Institute]], Nagpur.<ref>{{cite journal | url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/24095996 | jstor=24095996 | title=Defluoridation of potable water by Nalgonda technique | last1=Nawlakhe | first1=W. G. | last2=Paramasivam | first2=R. | journal=Current Science | date=1993 | volume=65 | issue=10 | pages=743–748 }}</ref><ref>https://wedc-knowledge.lboro.ac.uk/resources/conference/22/dahi.pdf</ref>
* Electrically Excited Synchronous Motor (EESM) or Rare earth free motor: In 2021 deep-tech startup Chara Technologies has built scalable, cloud-controlled electric vehicle motors free of toxic rare-earth metals, thus cutting a massive dependency on imports to accelerate electric mobility in India.<ref>{{cite news | url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/industry/renewables/bounce-ties-up-with-deep-tech-start-up-chara-for-local-production-of-ev-motors/articleshow/85211729.cms | title=Bounce ties up with deep-tech start-up Chara for local production of EV motors | newspaper=The Economic Times | date=10 August 2021 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/small-biz/entrepreneurship/an-electric-motor-from-bengaluru-can-break-chinas-rare-earth-mineral-hegemony/articleshow/97966989.cms?from=mdr | title=An electric motor from Bengaluru can break China's rare earth mineral hegemony }}</ref>
* [[Methanol fuel|MD-15]] is a new methanol fuel grade in which Methanol is blended with diesel. Research Design and Standards Organisation (RDSO), in collaboration with the Indian Oil Corporation Ltd (IOCL), has developed a special cost-effective fuel that would not only minimize IR's dependency on diesel, but will also be emit fewer pollutants. IOCL developed the composition, adding 14% additives (developed indigenously by IOCL) along with 71% mineral diesel, 15% methanol. MD-15 fuelled engine has shown superior performance, emission and combustion characteristics than the mineral diesel fuelled engine.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.news18.com/india/md-15-the-new-fuel-that-may-replace-diesel-in-indian-railways-locomotives-save-rs-2280-crore-8647015.html | title=MD-15: The New Fuel that May Replace Diesel in Indian Railways' Locomotives, Save Rs 2,280 Crore | date=3 November 2023 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news | url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/bengaluru/ioc-facility-for-blended-fuel-to-come-up-in-chennai/articleshow/99830461.cms | title=IOC: Facility for blended fuel to come up in Chennai | newspaper=The Times of India | date=28 April 2023 }}</ref>
* [[Unified Payments Interface]] – An instant real-time bank to bank [[Internet Protocol|payments protocol]] system developed by National Payments Corporation of India (NPCI) facilitated by QR code and Virtual Private Address(VPA) or UPI ID. UPI has able to make India a cashless and cardless economy, also strain on ATM infrastructure has reduced significantly.  
* [[Digital rupee]] (e₹) or eINR or e-rupee is a world's first digital national currency, to be issued by the Reserve Bank of India (RBI) as a central bank digital currency (CBDC). Digital Rupee is using blockchain distributed-ledger technology. Digital rupee users to hit 50,000 by Jan-end on better acceptance.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.thehindubusinessline.com/money-and-banking/number-of-cbdc-retail-users-estimated-to-touch-50000-by-jan-end/article66356886.ece | title=CBDC-R users to hit 50,000 by Jan-end on better acceptance | date=9 January 2023 }}</ref>

=== Weapon systems ===

* [[File:DRDO_AIP_(Air_Independent_Propulsion)_model_for_Kalvari-class_submarine.jpg|200px|thumb|A diagram of the fuel-cell AIP module developed by the DRDO of India, it can power ships or any other marine transport]][[Advanced Towed Artillery Gun System|ATAGS]] – Bharat Forge and the DRDO has developed world's first electric artillery gun<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.forbesindia.com/article/take-one-big-story-of-the-day/can-atags-give-indias-military-a-muchneeded-boost-the-answer-is-yes/85813/1 | title=Can ATAGS Give India's Military a Much-needed Boost? The Answer is Yes }}</ref>
* [[Combat helmet|Rifle-rated ballistic helmet]], [[MKU (company)|MKU]] has developed what it bills as "a first-of-its-kind rifle-rated ballistic helmet", MKU states that the Kavro Doma 360 is "the first anti-rifle helmet in the world that does not have bolts or any metal parts"<ref>{{cite web | url=https://euro-sd.com/2023/11/news/35083/mku-unveils-rifle-rated-helmet/ | title=Milipol Paris 2023: MKU unveils 'first-of-its-kind' rifle-rated ballistic helmet - European Security & Defence | date=16 November 2023 }}</ref>
* Critical Situation Response Vehicle (CSRV) – The Central Reserve Police Force (CRPF) has made and inducted a bomb/bulletproof armoured vehicle. The latest all-terrain highly sophisticated vehicle 'CSRV' has given a shot in the arm to the Central Reserve Police Force engaged in counter-terror operations.
* E-bomb – The Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO) has been developing an e-bomb which will emit electromagnetic shock waves that destroy electronic circuits and communication networks of enemy force.<ref>{{cite news | url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/india-developing-e-bomb-to-paralyze-networks/articleshow/22127411.cms | title='India developing E-bomb to paralyze networks' | newspaper=The Times of India | date=29 August 2013 }}</ref> The tow bodies in Lakshya-2 Weapon Delivery Configuration carry High Energy Weapon Payload.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.drdo.gov.in/lakshya-2 | title=LAKSHYA-2 &#124; Defence Research and Development Organisation - DRDO, Ministry of Defence, Government of India }}</ref>
* Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cell air-independent propulsion (PAFC AIP) is a 270 kilowatt phosphoric acid fuel cell (PAFC) air-independent propulsion (AIP) system to power the Kalvari-class submarines is developed by the [[Naval Materials Research Laboratory]] of Indian Defence Research and Development Organisation in collaboration with [[Larsen & Toubro]] and [[Thermax]]. The patent is owned by [[DRDO]]. Its application is considered to be wide and it can also power ships in future.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://patents.google.com/patent/WO2017145068A1/en | title=Air independent propulsion system for submarines based on phosphoric acid fuel cell with onboard hydrogen generator }}</ref>

=== Automotive innovations ===
* [[Air conditioning|Helmet AC]] - Featuring a plastic top and built-in-fan-like structure, the AC helmets are powered by a battery pack, which is worn by the traffic police officials on their waist. These helmets work for around 8 hours on a single full charge.<ref>{{cite news | url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/auto/news/ac-helmet-what-is-it-and-how-is-it-different-from-a-riding-helmet/articleshow/102934911.cms | title=AC Helmet: What is it and how is it different from a riding helmet | newspaper=The Times of India | date=22 August 2023 }}</ref>
* [[CNG]] car/vehicle – [[Bajaj Auto]] launched the first 'commercial' lot of its CNG (Compressed Natural Gas) autorickshaws in Delhi on 29 May 2000.By 1 December 2002, the last diesel bus had disappeared from Delhi’s roads, all buses were running on CNG.At the beginning of 2005, 10,300 CNG busses, 10,000 CNG taxis and 10,000 CNG cars run on Delhi’s roads.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.product-life.org/en/archive/cng-delhi | title=CNG Delhi – the world's cleanest public bus system running on CNG }}</ref>

=== Mathematics ===
{{See also|Indian mathematics}}

* [[AKS primality test]] – The AKS primality test is a [[deterministic algorithm|deterministic]] [[primality test|primality-proving]] [[algorithm]] created and published by three [[Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur]] computer scientists, [[Manindra Agrawal]], [[Neeraj Kayal]], and [[Nitin Saxena]] on 6 August 2002 in a paper titled [http://www.cse.iitk.ac.in/users/manindra/algebra/primality_v6.pdf ''PRIMES is in P''].<ref name=CrandallPomerance200>Crandall & Pomerance (2005), pages 200{{ndash}}201</ref><ref name=WeissteinAKSpt>{{MathWorld|urlname=AKSPrimalityTest|title=AKS Primality Test}}</ref> Commenting on the impact of this discovery, [[Paul Leyland]] noted: "One reason for the excitement within the mathematical community is not only does this algorithm settle a long-standing problem, it also does so in a brilliantly simple manner. Everyone is now wondering what else has been similarly overlooked".<ref name=WeissteinAKSpt/><ref name=Crandall03>Crandall & Papadopoulos (2003), page 2</ref>
* [[Multivariate statistics|Multivariate Statistical Theory]], is one of the base foundational concept of statistics was developed by [[C. R. Rao]] in 1952 when he was in [[Indian Statistical Institute]], Kolkata.
* [[Seshadri constant]] – In [[algebraic geometry]], a Seshadri constant is an invariant of an ample line bundle L at a point P on an [[algebraic variety]].The name is in honour of the Indian mathematician [[C. S. Seshadri]].
* [[Basu's theorem]] – The Basu's theorem, a result of [[Debabrata Basu]] (1955) states that any complete sufficient statistic is independent of any ancillary statistic.<ref name=Nitis325>Nitis (2000), page 325</ref><ref name=Boos1>Boos & Oliver (1998)</ref>
* [[Kosambi–Karhunen–Loève theorem]] (also known as the [[Karhunen–Loève theorem]]) The Kosambi-Karhunen-Loève theorem is a representation of a stochastic process as an infinite linear combination of [[orthogonal function]]s, analogous to a [[Fourier series]] representation of a function on a bounded interval. Stochastic processes given by infinite series of this form were first<ref name="Raju">{{Citation |first=C.K. |last=Raju |title=Kosambi the Mathematician |journal=Economic and Political Weekly |volume=44 |year=2009 |issue=20 |pages=33{{ndash}}45 }}</ref> considered by [[Damodar Dharmananda Kosambi]].<ref name="Kosambi">{{Citation |first=D. D. |last=Kosambi |title=Statistics in Function Space |journal=Journal of the Indian Mathematical Society |volume=7 |year=1943 |pages=76{{ndash}}88 |mr=9816 }}.</ref>
* [[Dattaraya Ramchandra Kaprekar|Kaprekar Constants]]: Numbers 495 and 6174. The Indian mathematician [[Dattaraya Ramchandra Kaprekar|D.R.Kaprekar]] discovered the number 6174 is reached after repeatedly subtracting the smallest number from the largest number that can be formed from any four digits not all the same. The number 495 is similarly reached for three digits number.
* [[Kosaraju's algorithm]]  is a linear time algorithm to find the strongly connected components of a directed graph. Aho, Hopcroft and Ullman credit it to S. Rao Kosaraju and Micha Sharir. Kosaraju suggested it in 1978.
* [[Ramanujan theta function]], [[Ramanujan prime]], [[Ramanujan summation]], [[Ramanujan graph]] and [[Ramanujan's sum]] – Discovered by the Indian mathematician [[Srinivasa Ramanujan]] in the early 20th century.<ref>Berndt & Rankin (2001)</ref>
* [[Shrikhande graph]] – [[Graph (discrete mathematics)|Graph]] invented by the Indian mathematician [[S.S. Shrikhande]] in 1959.

=== Sciences ===
[[File:Ammonium Nitrite 3D.JPG|thumb|Bengali Chemist [[Prafulla Chandra Roy]] synthesised NH<sub>4</sub>NO<sub>2</sub> in its pure form.]] [[File:Ramaplot.png|thumb|A [[Ramachandran plot]] generated from the protein [[PCNA]], a human [[DNA clamp]] [[protein]] that is composed of both [[beta sheet]]s and [[alpha helix|alpha helices]] ([[Protein Data Bank|PDB]] ID 1AXC). Points that lie on the axes indicate [[N-terminus|N-]] and [[C-terminus|C-terminal]] residues for each subunit. The green regions show possible angle formations that include [[Glycine]], while the blue areas are for formations that don't include Glycine.]]
* [[Ammonium nitrite|Ammonium nitrite, synthesis in pure form]] – [[Prafulla Chandra Roy]] synthesised NH<sub>4</sub>NO<sub>2</sub> in its pure form, and became the first scientist to have done so.<ref name=vigyanprasar_pcray/> Prior to Ray's synthesis of Ammonium nitrite it was thought that the compound undergoes rapid thermal decomposition releasing nitrogen and water in the process.<ref name=vigyanprasar_pcray/>
* [[Ashtekar variables]] – In theoretical physics, Ashtekar (new) variables, named after [[Abhay Ashtekar]] who invented them, represent an unusual way to rewrite the metric on the three-dimensional spatial slices in terms of a [[SU(2)]] [[gauge field]] and its complementary variable. Ashtekar variables are the key building block of [[loop quantum gravity]].
* Bhatnagar-Mathur Magnetic Interference Balance: Invented jointly by [[Shanti Swarup Bhatnagar]] and K.N. Mathur in 1928, the so-called 'Bhatnagar-Mathur Magnetic Interference Balance' was a modern instrument used for measuring various magnetic properties.<ref name=Vigyan_prasar_Shanti_Swaryp/> The first appearance of this instrument in Europe was at a [[Royal Society]] exhibition in London, where it was later marketed by British firm Messers Adam Hilger and Co, London.<ref name=Vigyan_prasar_Shanti_Swaryp>[http://www.vigyanprasar.gov.in/scientists/ssbhatnagar/ShantiSwarupBhatnagar.htm ''Shanti Swarup Bhatnagar''] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131018015234/http://www.vigyanprasar.gov.in/scientists/ssbhatnagar/ShantiSwarupBhatnagar.htm |date=18 October 2013 }}. Vigyan Prasar: Government of India.</ref>
* [[Bhabha scattering]] – In 1935, Indian nuclear physicist [[Homi J. Bhabha]] published a paper in the ''[[Proceedings of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences|Proceedings of the Royal Society, Series A]]'', in which he performed the first calculation to determine the cross section of electron-positron scattering.<ref name="Penneyp39"/> Electron-positron scattering was later named Bhabha scattering, in honour of his contributions in the field.<ref name="Penneyp39">Penney (1967), page 39</ref>
* [[Bose–Einstein statistics]], [[Bose–Einstein condensate|condensate]] – On 4 June 1924 the Indian physicist [[Satyendra Nath Bose]] mailed a short manuscript to [[Albert Einstein]] entitled [http://www.ias.ac.in/jarch/jaa/15/3-7.pdf ''Planck's Law and the Light Quantum Hypothesis''] seeking Einstein's influence to get it published after it was rejected by the prestigious journal ''[[Philosophical Magazine]]''.<ref name=Rigden143>Rigden (2005), pages 143{{ndash}}144</ref> The paper introduced what is today called ''Bose statistics'', which showed how it could be used to derive the Planck blackbody spectrum from the assumption that light was made of [[photons]].<ref name=Rigden143/><ref name=Fraser238>Fraser (2006), page 238</ref> Einstein, recognizing the importance of the paper translated it into German himself and submitted it on Bose's behalf to the prestigious ''[[Zeitschrift für Physik]]''.<ref name=Rigden143/><ref name=Fraser238/> Einstein later applied Bose's principles on particles with mass and quickly predicted the ''Bose-Einstein condensate''.<ref name=Fraser238/><ref name=Dauxois297>Dauxois & Peyrard (2006), pages 297{{ndash}}298</ref>
* [[Braunstein-Ghosh-Severini Entropy]] – This modelling of entropy using network theory is used in the analysis of [[quantum gravity]] and is named after Sibasish Ghosh and his teammates, [[Samuel L. Braunstein]] and Simone Severini.
* [[Dual-phase steel]], was publicly first described in "Microstructure and tensile properties of high strength duplex ferrite–martensite (DFM) steels" by P.C. Chakraborti and M.K. Mitra.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Chakraborti |first1=P.C. |last2=Mitra |first2=M.K. |title=Microstructure and tensile properties of high strength duplex ferrite–martensite (DFM) steels |journal=Materials Science and Engineering: A |date=September 2007 |volume=466 |issue=1–2 |pages=123–133 |doi=10.1016/j.msea.2007.02.042 }}</ref>
* [[Galena|Galena, applied use in electronics of]] – Bengali scientist Sir [[Jagadish Chandra Bose]] effectively used Galena crystals for constructing radio receivers.<ref name=tifr>[http://www.tifr.res.in/~outreach/biographies/scientists.pdf "Indian Scientists"] (November 2004), Science Popularisation and Public Outreach Committee, [[Tata Institute of Fundamental Research]].</ref> The Galena receivers of Bose were used to receive signals consisting of [[shortwave]], [[Electromagnetic spectrum#Visible radiation (light)|white light]] and [[ultraviolet light]].<ref name=tifr/> In 1904 Bose patented the use of Galena Detector which he called ''Point Contact Diode using Galena''.<ref name=Sarkar94>Sarkar (2006), page 94</ref>
* [[Mahalanobis distance]] – Introduced in 1936 by the Indian (Bengali) statistician [[Prasanta Chandra Mahalanobis]] (29 June 1893 – 28 June 1972), this distance measure, based upon the correlation between variables, is used to identify and analyze differing pattern with respect to one base.<ref>Taguchi & Jugulum (2002), pages 6{{ndash}}7</ref>
* [[Nitrite|Mercurous nitrite]] – The compound mercurous nitrite was discovered in 1896 by the Bengali chemist Prafulla Chandra Roy, who published his findings in the ''[[Asiatic Society|Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal]]''.<ref name=vigyanprasar_pcray>[http://www.vigyanprasar.gov.in/scientists/pcray/PCRay.htm "Acharya Prafulla Chandra Ray"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070927173458/http://www.vigyanprasar.gov.in/scientists/pcray/PCRay.htm |date=27 September 2007 }}, Viyan Prasar, Department of Science and Technology, Government of India.</ref> The discovery contributed as a base for significant future research in the field of chemistry.<ref name=vigyanprasar_pcray/>
* [[Ramachandran plot]], Ramachandran map, and Ramachandran angles: The Ramachandran plot and Ramachandran map were developed by [[Gopalasamudram Narayana Iyer Ramachandran]], who published his results in the ''[[Journal of Molecular Biology]]'' in 1963. He also developed the Ramachandran angles, which serve as a convenient tool for [[communication]], representation, and various kinds of [[data analysis]].<ref name=Ramakrishnan>Ramakrishnan (2001)</ref>
* [[Raman effect]] – The Encyclopædia Britannica (2008) reports: "change in the wavelength of light that occurs when a light beam is deflected by molecules. The phenomenon is named for [[Sir Chandrasekhara Venkata Raman]], who discovered it in 1928. When a beam of light traverses a dust-free, transparent sample of a chemical compound, a small fraction of the light emerges in directions other than that of the incident (incoming) beam. Most of this scattered light is of unchanged wavelength. A small part, however, has wavelengths different from that of the incident light; its presence is a result of the Raman effect."<ref>"Raman effect".''Encyclopædia Britannica'' (2008)</ref>
* [[Raychaudhuri equation]] – Discovered by the [[Bengali people|Bengali]] physicist [[Amal Kumar Raychaudhuri]] in 1954. This was a key ingredient of the [[Penrose-Hawking singularity theorems]] of [[general relativity]].<ref>Naresh (2005)</ref>
* Periodicity in Nuclear Properties: A sharp pattern is discovered by an Indian researcher regarding the nuclear properties of chemical elements. The remarkable deviations are noticed near the magic numbers.<ref name=ShadabKAS20>{{cite journal|title=PERIODICITY IN NUCLEAR PROPERTIES|journal=International Research Journal of Natural and Applied Sciences|author=Shadab,K. A.|volume=7|issue=5|pages=18–61|year=2020}}</ref>
* Process of formation of the E layer of the ionosphere and night sky luminiscence: Discovered by the Indian physicist, Sisir Kumar Mitra.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Awakening Indians to India|date=2003|publisher=Central Chinmaya Mission Trust|others=All India Chinmaya Yuva Kendra|isbn=81-7597-175-4|edition=1st|location=Mumbai, India|oclc=296288988}}{{page needed|date=August 2024}}</ref>
*[[Boson]]: Satyendra Nath Bose's research led to the discovery of the [[Boson]], one of the [[elementary particles]] on the [[Standard Model]] of [[Particle Physics]].

=== Space ===
[[File:Direct evidence of lunar water.jpg|thumb|right|350px|Direct evidence of lunar water in the Moon atmosphere obtained by the Chandrayaan-1's Altitudinal Composition (CHACE) output profile]]
* [[Lunar water]] – Although the presence of water ice on the Moon has been conjectured by various scientists since the 1960s, inconclusive evidence of free water ice had also been identified. The first incontrovertible evidence of water on the Moon was provided by the payload Chace carried by the [[Moon Impact Probe]] released by [[Chandrayaan-1]] in 2009,<ref>{{cite news|title=MIP detected water on Moon way back in June: ISRO Chairman|url=http://m.thehindu.com/sci-tech/science/mip-detected-water-on-moon-way-back-in-june-isro-chairman/article24854.ece|newspaper=The Hindu|date=25 September 2009|author=Staff Reporter}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=Did India beat NASA to find water on moon?|url=http://m.ndtv.com/sci-tech/did-india-beat-nasa-to-find-water-on-moon-402138|work=m.ndtv.com|access-date=29 November 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161130035434/http://m.ndtv.com/sci-tech/did-india-beat-nasa-to-find-water-on-moon-402138|archive-date=30 November 2016|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Chandrayaan-1 {{!}} Indian space probe|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Chandrayaan-1|website=Encyclopædia Britannica}}</ref> confirmed and established by [[NASA]].<ref>{{cite news|title=Chandrayaan first discovered water on moon, but… {{!}} Latest News & Updates at Daily News & Analysis|url=http://www.dnaindia.com/scitech/report-chandrayaan-first-discovered-water-on-moon-but-1292942|work=dna|date=25 September 2009}}</ref>
* [[Saha ionisation equation]] – The Saha equation, derived by the Bengali scientist [[Meghnad Saha]] (6 October 1893 – 16 February 1956) in 1920, conceptualises [[ionisation]]s in context of stellar atmospheres.<ref>Narlikar (2002), page 188</ref>
* [[Quasi-normal mode]]s of [[black holes]] – [[C. V. Vishveshwara]] discovered the [[quasi-normal mode]]s of black holes.<ref>Vishveshwara, C.V., Nature, 1970, 227, 936</ref> These modes of black hole vibrations are one of the main targets of observation using the gravitational wave detector.
*[[Chandrasekhar limit]]: [[Subramanyan Chandrasekhar]] discovered the maximum mass of a stable [[white dwarf]] star.

==See also==
* [[Timeline of Indian innovation]]
* [[History of science and technology in India]]
* [[Timeline of historic inventions]]
* [[List of Indian mathematicians]]
* [[List of Indian scientists]]

==Notes==
{{reflist|group=nb}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

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* Wenk, Hans-Rudolf; et al. (2003). ''Minerals: Their Constitution and Origin''. England: Cambridge University Press. {{ISBN|0-521-52958-1}}.
* {{cite journal |doi=10.1017/S0950473700001221 |last=Whish |first=Charles |year=1835 |title=On the Hindu Quadrature of the Circle, and the infinite Series of the proportion of the circumference to the diameter exhibited in the four shastras: the Tantra Sangraham, Yukti-Bhasa, Carana Padhati, and Sadratnamala |journal=Transactions of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland |volume=3 |issue=3 |pages=509{{ndash}}523|title-link=Sadratnamala }}
* {{cite journal | last1 = White | first1 = Lynn Townsend Jr. | author-link = Lynn Townsend White Jr. | year = 1960 | title = Tibet, India, and Malaya as Sources of Western Medieval Technology | journal = The American Historical Review | volume = 65 | issue = 3| pages = 522{{ndash}}526 | doi=10.2307/1849619| jstor = 1849619 }}
* Whitelaw, Ian (2007). ''A Measure of All Things: The Story of Man and Measurement''. [[Macmillan Publishers|Macmillan]]. {{ISBN|0-312-37026-1}}.
* {{cite journal | last1 = Wilkinson | first1 = Charles K | year = 1943 | title = Chessmen and Chess | journal = The Metropolitan Museum of Art Bulletin |series=New Series | volume = 1 | issue = 9| pages = 271{{ndash}}279 | doi = 10.2307/3257111 | jstor = 3257111 }}
* Wise, Tad (2002). ''Blessings on the Wind: The Mystery & Meaning of Tibetan Prayer Flags''. Chronicle Books. {{ISBN|0-8118-3435-2}}.
* Wisseman, S. U. & Williams, W. S. (1994). ''Ancient Technologies and Archaeological Materials''. London: Routledge. {{ISBN|2-88124-632-X}}.
* Woods, Michael & Woods, Mary B. (2000). ''Ancient Transportation: From Camels to Canals''. Minnesota: Twenty-First Century Books. {{ISBN|0-8225-2993-9}}.
{{refend}}

==External links==
* [http://www.themysteriousindia.net/ancient-india-inventions-science-technology/ Ancient India's Inventions In Science And Technology]
* [http://www.indianscience.org/essays/essays.shtml Essays on Indian Science and Technology.]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20140224120624/http://www.sciencecongress.nic.in/html/pdf/e-book/oct-nov-2012.pdf P. K. Ray, SCIENCE, CULTURE AND DEVELOPMENT – A CONNECTED PHENOMENA, Everyman's Science Vol.]
* ''History of Science in South Asia'' ([http://hssa-journal.org hssa-journal.org]). HSSA is a peer-reviewed, open-access, online journal for the history of science in India.

{{Inventions|state=collapsed}}
{{Indianscience|state=uncollapsed}}

{{South Asian topics}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Indian Inventions And Discoveries}}
[[Category:Science and technology in India|Inventions]]
[[Category:Indian inventions| ]]
[[Category:Lists of inventions or discoveries]]
[[Category:India science and technology-related lists]]
[[Category:India history-related lists|Inventions and discoveries]]