View source for List of Egyptian inventions and discoveries

{{short description|None}}
{{use dmy dates|date=January 2022}}
Egyptian inventions and discoveries are objects, processes or techniques which owe their existence or first known written account either partially or entirely to an Egyptian person.

== Ancient Egypt ==

=== Government and Economy ===

[[File:Treaty of Kadesh.jpg|thumb|Tablet of one of the earliest recorded [[treaties]] in history, [[Egyptian-Hittite peace treaty|Treaty of Kadesh]], at the [[Istanbul Archaeology Museum]]]]
* [[Community banking models]] — Community banking is a non-traditional form of money-lending.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Minsky|first=Hyman P.|title=Community development banks: An idea in search of substance|journal=Challenge|date=March–April 1993|volume=36|issue=2|pages=33–41|doi=10.1080/05775132.1993.11471653 |url= https://digitalcommons.bard.edu/hm_archive/278/}}</ref> Unlike [[bank]]s or other classic lending institutions, the funds that community banks lend to borrowers are gathered by the local community itself. This tends to mean that the individuals in a neighborhood or group have more control over who is receiving the [[Financial capital|capital]] and how that capital is being spent. This practice has existed in some form for centuries; in ancient [[Egypt]], for example, when grain was often used as currency, local granaries would store and distribute the community's food supply.<ref>{{cite web|last=Gascoigne|first=Bamber|title=Historyworld|url=http://www.historyworld.net/wrldhis/plaintexthistories.asp?historyid=ac19|work=History of Banking|access-date=1 March 2014}}</ref> Since that time, a variety of community banking models have evolved.
* [[Police]] — In ancient Egypt evidence of law enforcement exists as far back as the [[Old Kingdom of Egypt|Old Kingdom period]]. There are records of an office known as "Judge Commandant of the Police" dating to the [[Fourth Dynasty of Egypt|Fourth Dynasty]].<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Conser|first1=James A.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8olkayVkVSIC&pg=PA32|title=Law Enforcement in the United States|last2=Russell|first2=Gregory D.|last3=Gingerich|first3=Terry E.|last4=Paynich|first4=Rebecca|date=2005|publisher=Jones & Bartlett Learning|isbn=978-0-7637-8352-5|language=en}}</ref>
* [[Mail|Postal system]] — The first documented use of a postal system, state-sponsored, designated [[courier]] service for the dissemination of written documents is in [[Egypt]], where [[Pharaoh]]s used couriers to send out decrees throughout the territory of the state (2400 BCE).<ref>{{Cite book |author1=Altaweel, Mark |author2=Andrea Squitieri |title=Long-Distance Trade and Economy before and during the Age of Empires." Revolutionizing a World: From Small States to Universalism in the Pre-Islamic Near East |publisher=University College London Press |date=2018 |page=177 |doi=10.2307/j.ctt21c4td4.10 |isbn=978-1-911576-65-5 |jstor=j.ctt21c4td4.10}}</ref>
* [[Law]] — [[Ancient Egypt]]ian law, dating as far back as 3000 BC, was based on the concept of [[Ma'at]] and characterised by tradition, [[rhetoric]]al speech, social equality, and impartiality.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|last=Théodoridés|title = law | encyclopedia = Encyclopedia of the Archaeology of Ancient Egypt}}</ref><ref>VerSteeg, ''Law in ancient Egypt''</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Lippert |first1=Sandra |title=Egyptian Law, Saite to Roman Periods |journal=Oxford Handbooks Online |date=11 February 2016 |doi=10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199935390.013.48 |url=https://www.oxfordhandbooks.com/view/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199935390.001.0001/oxfordhb-9780199935390-e-48 |access-date=3 January 2020 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-993539-0 |language=en}}</ref>

=== Warfare ===

* [[Military organization]] — As early as the [[Old Kingdom]] (c.2686–2160 BC) [[Egypt]] used specific [[military units]], with military hierarchy appearing in the [[Middle Kingdom of Egypt|Middle Kingdom]] (c.2055–1650 BC).<ref>{{Cite book |first1= John Coleman |last1= Darnell |author-link1= John Coleman Darnell |first2= Colleen |last2= Manassa |author-link2= Colleen Darnell |date= 2007 |title= Tutankhamun's Armies: Battle and Conquest during Ancient Egypt's Late 18th Dynasty |location= Hoboken |publisher= John Wiley & Sons |isbn= 9780471743583 |page= 60}}</ref>
* Military scribe and battle recording — The first well documented battle in the history of the world is the [[Battle of Megiddo (15th century BC)|Battle of Megiddo]].<ref name="Dupay">Trevor N. Dupuy, ''Evolution of Weapons and Warfare''.</ref>
[[File:Buhen3.jpg|thumb|Reconstruction of Buhen fortress]]
* [[Catapult]] — A Catapult dating to the 19th century B.C was found on the walls of the fortress of [[Buhen]].<ref name="wac">{{Cite book|last1=Lewis|first1=Leo Richard|title=The Compendium of Weapons, Armor & Castles|last2=Tenney|first2=Charles R.|publisher=Nabu Press|year=2010|isbn=978-1146066846|page=139}}</ref>
* [[Draw bridge]] — The fortress of [[Buhen]] contains the oldest known drawbridges.<ref name="wac"/>
* [[Battlement]]s — Another feature of the [[Buhen]] fortress the construction of the world's oldest battlements.<ref name="wac"/>
* [[Arrowslit]] — Loop holes are found for the first time in some Middle kingdom forts.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.worldhistory.biz/ancient-history/68126-7-10-egyptian-forts-in-nubia-and-indigenous-peoples-there.html |title=7.10 Egyptian Forts in Nubia and Indigenous Peoples There |website=worldhistory.biz |date=8 May 2015 |access-date=23 September 2018}}</ref>
* [[Battering rams]] — The earliest depiction of a possible battering ram is from the tomb of the [[11th Dynasty]] noble Khety, where a pair of soldiers advance towards a fortress under the protection of a mobile roofed structure, carrying a long pole that may represent a simple battering ram.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.touregypt.net/featurestories/siegewarfare.html| title=Siege warfare in ancient Egypt |publisher=Tour Egypt|access-date=23 May 2020 |quote=...we find a pair of Middle Kingdom soldiers advancing towards a fortress under the protection of a mobile roofed structure. They carry a long pole that was perhaps an early battering ram. |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190211232703/http://www.touregypt.net/featurestories/siegewarfare.html| archive-date=11 February 2019|url-status=live}}</ref>
* [[Siege towers]] — Moving siege towers were invented in Egypt during the [[First Intermediate Period of Egypt|First Intermediate Period]].<ref>{{cite book|title=Ancient Egyptian Warfare: Tactics, Weaponry and Ideology of the Pharaohs|author=Ian Shaw|date=17 December 2019|publisher=Open Road Media |isbn=978-1-5040-6059-2|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0q_CDwAAQBAJ&q=siege+tower+in+ancient+egypt&pg=PT41}}</ref>
* [[Naval ram]] — Naval rams were built on ships since at least the reign of [[Amenhotep I]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/technology/ram-warship-part|title=Britannica: Ram}}</ref>
* [[Grappling hook]] — The ancient Egyptians used grappling hooks as early as the [[Bronze Age]] collapse and in their war with the [[Sea people]].<ref>{{cite book|title=Waging War: Conflict, Culture, and Innovation in World History|author=Wayne E. Lee|publisher=Oxford University Press|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hbyYCgAAQBAJ&dq=grappling+hooks+in+history+bronze+age&pg=PA182|page=182|date=2016|isbn=978-0199797455}}</ref>
* [[Dagger]] — In ancient Egypt, daggers were usually made of copper or bronze, while royalty had gold weapons. At least since [[pre-dynastic Egypt]],<ref>Iorwerth Eiddon Stephen Edwards, [[Cyril John Gadd]], Nicholas Geoffrey Lemprière Hammond, 1970</ref> (c. 3100 B.C) daggers were adorned as [[ceremonial weapon|ceremonial objects]] with golden hilts and later even more ornate and varied construction. One early silver dagger was recovered with midrib design.
* [[Police Dog]]s and [[Dogs in warfare|War Dogs]] — were used by the Egyptians as early as 4000 B.C.<ref name="NYT">{{cite news |access-date=2008-11-26 |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1915/02/21/archives/dogs-of-war-in-european-conflict-egyptians-and-romans-employed-them.html|title=Dogs of War in European Conflict; Egyptians and Romans Employed Them in Early Warfare – Battle Dogs in 4000 B.C|date=21 February 1915 |page=S3|work=[[The New York Times]]}}</ref>
* [[Encryption]] — One of the earliest forms of encryption is symbol replacement, which was first found in the tomb of [[Khnumhotep II]], who lived in 1900 B.C. Egypt. Symbol replacement encryption is "non-standard," which means that the symbols require a cipher or key to understand.<ref name=":4">{{cite web|url=https://www.binance.vision/security/history-of-cryptography|title=History of Cryptography|website=Binance Academy|language=en|access-date=2020-04-02|archive-date=26 April 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200426075650/https://www.binance.vision/security/history-of-cryptography}}</ref>

=== Agriculture and Animal Husbandry ===

* [[Diversion dam]] — The first Diversion dam is [[Sadd el-Kafara Dam]] built in Egypt around 2700 B.C.<ref name="Günther Garbrecht 52f.">Günther Garbrecht: "Wasserspeicher (Talsperren) in der Antike", ''Antike Welt'', 2nd special edition: ''Antiker Wasserbau'' (1986), pp.51–64 (52f.)</ref>
* [[Noria]] — Norias appeared in Egypt in the 4th Century B.C.<ref name=Wikander>{{cite book |contribution=Chapter 6: Sources of Energy and Exploitation of Power |author=Örjan Wikander |author-link=Örjan Wikander |title=The Oxford Handbook of Engineering and Technology in the Classical World |editor=John Peter Oleson |editor-link=John Peter Oleson |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |year=2008 |isbn=978-0-19-518731-1 |pages=141–2}}</ref>
* [[Beekeeping]] — domesticated Beekeeping was first recorded in ancient Egypt around 2600 B.C.<ref>{{cite book |author=Crane, Eva |chapter=Honeybees |editor=Mason, I. L. |title=Evolution of Domesticated Animals |pages=403–415 |date=1984 |publisher=Longman}}</ref><ref>[https://www.fondazioneslowfood.com/en/ark-of-taste-slow-food/egyptian-honeybee/ Egyptian honeybee Ark of taste]</ref> as well as the first use of smoke while extracting the honey from bee nests.<ref name="Bodenheimer1960">{{cite book |title=Animal and Man in Bible Lands |first=F. S. |last=Bodenheimer |publisher=Brill Archive |year=1960 |page=79}}</ref>
* [[Stable | Horse stable]] — The world's oldest horse stables were discovered in the ancient city of [[Pi-Ramesses]] in [[Qantir]], in [[Ancient Egypt]], and were established by [[Ramesses II]] (c. 1304–1213 BC). These stables covered approximately 182,986 square feet, had floors sloped for drainage, and could contain about 480 horses.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.guinnessworldrecords.com/world-records/oldest-horse-stables |title=Oldest horse stables |website=Guinness World Records|access-date= 2016-06-27 }}</ref>
* [[Zoo]] — The world's first zoo was discovered at [[Hierakonpolis]] dating back to 3,500 B.C.<ref>{{cite magazine|title=World's First Zoo – Hierakonpolis, Egypt |magazine=Archaeology Magazine |url=http://www.archaeology.org/1001/topten/egypt.html |first=Mark |last=Rose |date=2010 |volume=63 |issue=1}}</ref>
* [[Olive]] cultivation — Some scholars have argued that olive cultivation originated with the Ancient Egyptians.<ref name=review>{{cite journal |last1=Kapellakis |first1=Iosif Emmanouil |title=Olive oil history, production and by-product management |journal=Reviews in Environmental Science and Bio/Technology |date=2008 |volume=7 |issue=1 |pages=1–26 |doi=10.1007/s11157-007-9120-9|bibcode=2008RESBT...7....1K |s2cid=84992505 }}</ref><ref>To Elaiodentro. (Olive Tree), vol I</ref>
* Ox drawn [[plough]] — Ox drawn ploughs were used by Ancient Egyptians as early as 2000 B.C.<ref name="science.howstuffworks.com">{{cite web|url=https://science.howstuffworks.com/innovation/inventions/5-amazing-ancient-egyptian-inventions5.htm|title=10 Amazing Ancient Egyptian Inventions|date=12 January 2011}}</ref>

=== Transport ===

* [[Hull (watercraft)|Hull]]s — Hulls were first built in Egypt as early as 3000 B.C<ref name="AIA">Ward, Cheryl. "World's Oldest Planked Boats," in ''[[Archaeology (magazine)|Archaeology]]'' (Volume 54, Number 3, May/June 2001). [[Archaeological Institute of America]]. [http://www.archaeology.org/0105/abstracts/abydos3.html Archaeology.org]</ref>

[[File:Maler der Grabkammer des Menna 013.jpg|thumb|Egyptian sailing ship, ca. 1422–1411 BCE]]
* [[Sail]] — cloth sails are depicted in predynastic Egyptian art (c. 3300 B.C).<ref>{{cite encyclopedia | url=https://www.britannica.com/technology/sail-watercraft-part | title=sail|encyclopedia=Britannica|access-date=28 March 2022}}</ref><ref name="SportsStudies">Encyclopedia Of International Sports Studies. Page 31</ref>
* [[Harbor]] / [[Dock (maritime)|Dock]] — The earliest known Harbors were those discovered in [[Wadi al-Jarf]], an ancient Egyptian [[harbor]], (ca. 2600-2550 BCE, reign of King Khufu), located on the [[Red Sea]] coast.<ref>{{cite news|last=Boyle|first=Alan|title=4,500-year-old harbor structures and papyrus texts unearthed in Egypt|url= https://www.nbcnews.com/science/cosmic-log/4-500-year-old-harbor-structures-papyrus-texts-unearthed-egypt-flna1c9356840|newspaper=[[NBC]]|date=15 April 2013}}</ref><ref name=Marouard>{{cite journal |last1=Marouard |first1=Gregory |last2=Tallet |first2=Pierre |year=2012 |title=Wadi al-Jarf – An early pharaonic harbour on the Red Sea coast |journal=[[Egyptian Archaeology]] |volume=40 |pages=40–43 |url=https://www.academia.edu/1819574 |access-date=18 April 2013}}</ref> Archaeologists also discovered anchors and storage jars near the site.<ref>{{cite journal|title=Ayn Sukhna and Wadi el-Jarf: Two newly discovered pharaonic harbours on the Suez Gulf|journal=British Museum Studies in Ancient Egypt and Sudan|last=Tallet|first=Pierre|volume=18|year=2012|pages=147–68|issn=2049-5021|url=https://www.britishmuseum.org/PDF/Tallet.pdf|access-date=21 April 2013}}</ref>
* [[Mast (sailing)|Mast]]s and [[Bipod mast]] — The bipod mast is a two-legged mast used originally in [[Egypt]] during the [[3rd millennium BC|3rd millennium BCE]]. It can be described as two poles secured together at the top, forming a thin [[Triangle|isosceles triangle]]. It did not appear until the [[Old Kingdom]], third dynasty, and disappeared after the sixth dynasty when the pole mast took over during the [[Middle Kingdom of Egypt|Middle Kingdom]].<ref>Vinson, Steve. 1994. Egyptian boats and ships. Osprey Publishing.</ref>
* [[Rudder|Stern-mounted steering oar]] — A predecessor to the [[Rudder]]. Rowing oars set aside for steering appeared on large Egyptian vessels long before the time of [[Menes]] (3100 BC).<ref name="William F. Edgerton, 255">William F. Edgerton: "Ancient Egyptian Steering Gear", ''The American Journal of Semitic Languages and Literatures'', Vol. 43, No. 4. (1927), pp. 255</ref> In the [[Old Kingdom]] (2686 BC-2134 BC) as many as five steering oars are found on each side of passenger boats.<ref name="William F. Edgerton, 255"/> The [[tiller]], at first a small pin run through the stock of the steering oar, can be traced to the fifth dynasty (2504–2347 BC).<ref name="William F. Edgerton, 257">William F. Edgerton: "Ancient Egyptian Steering Gear", ''The American Journal of Semitic Languages and Literatures'', Vol. 43, No. 4. (1927), pp. 257</ref> Both the tiller and the introduction of an upright steering post abaft reduced the usual number of necessary steering oars to one each side.<ref name="William F. Edgerton, 260">William F. Edgerton: "Ancient Egyptian Steering Gear", ''The American Journal of Semitic Languages and Literatures'', Vol. 43, No. 4. (1927), pp. 260</ref> Single steering oars put on the stern can be found in a number of tomb models of the time,<ref>Francesco Tiradritti (ed.): "The Treasures of the Egyptian Museum", The American University in Cairo Press, Cairo 1999, {{ISBN|978-977-424-504-6}}, p.92f.</ref> particularly during the [[Middle Kingdom of Egypt|Middle Kingdom]] when tomb reliefs suggests them commonly employed in [[Nile]] navigation.<ref>Mohamed Ata: "Egypt from Past to Present. Through the Eyes of an Egyptian", Cairo 2007, p.68</ref> The first literary reference appears in the works of the [[Ancient Greece|Greek]] historian [[Herodotus]] (484-424 BC), who had spent several months in [[Egypt]]: "They make one rudder, and this is thrust through the [[keel]]", probably meaning the crotch at the end of the keel (see right pic "Tomb of Menna").<ref>[[Herodot]]: [[Histories (Herodotus)|Histories]], 2.96</ref><ref>William F. Edgerton: "Ancient Egyptian Steering Gear", ''The American Journal of Semitic Languages and Literatures'', Vol. 43, No. 4. (1927), pp. 263</ref>
* [[Road | Paved road]] — The world's oldest paved road was discovered near [[Faiyum]] dating back to the 26th century BC.<ref>{{cite news|title=World's Oldest Paved Road Found in Egypt – The New York Times|newspaper=The New York Times|date=8 May 1994|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1994/05/08/world/world-s-oldest-paved-road-found-in-egypt.html?mcubz=1|access-date=2018-08-29 |last1=Wilford|first1=John Noble}}</ref>
* [[Rail transport|Rail]] — Evidence from The Lake Moeris Quarry Road (26th century BC.) suggests the presence of early wooden rail using wooden logs to.<ref>{{cite web|url= https://www.asce.org/about-civil-engineering/history-and-heritage/historic-landmarks/lake-moeris-quarry-road/|title=Lake Moeris Quarry Road}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://english.ahram.org.eg/NewsContent/9/40/94839/Heritage/Ancient-Egypt/Egypts-Widan-AlFaras-The-world%E2%80%99s-oldest-road-all-b.aspx|title=Egypt's Widan Al-Faras:The world's oldest road all but forgotten}}</ref>

=== Metals, Elements and Materials ===
* [[Mercury (element)|Mercury]] — The earliest known use of Mercury dates to Ancient Egypt around 1500 BC.<ref>{{cite web |title=Mercury and the environment – Basic facts |publisher=[[Environment Canada]], Federal Government of Canada |year=2004 |url=http://www.ec.gc.ca/MERCURY/EN/bf.cfm |access-date=2008-03-27 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070115042236/http://www.ec.gc.ca/MERCURY/EN/bf.cfm |archive-date=2007-01-15 }}</ref>
* [[Natron]] — Natron was used by the [[Ancient Egyptians]] in [[Mummification]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.historymuseum.ca/cmc/exhibitions/civil/egypt/egcr06e.html|title=Egyptian civilization – Religion – Mummification}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.compoundchem.com/2016/10/27/mummification/|title=The Chemistry of Mummification|date=27 October 2016}}</ref>
* [[Turquoise]] — Turquoise was mined in Egypt Since at least the [[First Dynasty of Egypt|First Dynasty]] (3000&nbsp;[[Common Era|BCE]]), and possibly before then, turquoise was used by the Egyptians and was [[mining|mined]] by them in the [[Sinai Peninsula]]. This region was known as the ''Country of Turquoise'' by the native Monitu.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.americangemsociety.org/page/turquoisehistory#:~:text=The%20earliest%20evidence%20of%20turquoise,and%20carved%20it%20into%20scarabs.|title= History of Turquoise, from Egypt to Native Americans}}</ref> [[Serabit el-Khadim]] and [[Wadi Maghareh]], believed to be among the oldest of known mines.
* [[Wattle and daub]] — Wattle and daub was used in Egypt as early as the [[Merimde culture]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Nicholson |first1=Paul T. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Vj7A9jJrZP0C&q=barry+kemp+wattle+and+daub&pg=PA78 |title=Ancient Egyptian Materials and Technology |last2=Shaw |first2=Ian |last3=Press |first3=Cambridge University |date=2000-03-23 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-45257-1 |language=en}}</ref>
* [[Lime mortar]] — The [[Ancient Egypt]]ians were the first to use lime mortars. Which they used to plaster the [[pyramid]]s at [[Giza]]. In addition, the Egyptians also incorporated various limes into their religious temples as well as their homes. Indian traditional structures built with lime mortar, which are more than 4,000 years old like [[Mohenjo-daro]] is still a heritage monument of Indus valley civilization in [[Pakistan]].{{cn|date=April 2024}} It is one of the oldest known types of mortar also used in [[ancient Rome]] and [[ancient Greece|Greece]], when it largely replaced the [[clay]] and [[gypsum]] mortars common to ancient Egyptian construction.<ref>{{cite book |last=Lucas |first=A |title=Ancient Egyptian Materials and Industries |publisher=Kessinger Publishing, LLC |year=2003 |location=USA |page=584 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GugkliLHDMoC&q=egyptian+%22lime+mortar%22&pg=PA93 |isbn=0-7661-5141-7 }}{{Dead link|date=May 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>
* [[Emerald]] — Emerald was first mined in Egypt since at least the [[New Kingdom of Egypt|New Kingdom]].<ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1126/science.287.5453.631|url=http://horizon.documentation.ird.fr/exl-doc/pleins_textes/pleins_textes_7/b_fdi_53-54/010020866.pdf|title=Oxygen Isotopes and Emerald Trade Routes Since Antiquity|journal=Science|year=2000|vauthors=Giuliani G, Chaussidon M, Schubnel HJ, Piat DH, Rollion-Bard C, France-Lanord C, Giard D, de Narvaez D, Rondeau B|pages=631–3|bibcode=2000Sci...287..631G|pmid=10649992|volume=287|issue=5453|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110807120139/http://horizon.documentation.ird.fr/exl-doc/pleins_textes/pleins_textes_7/b_fdi_53-54/010020866.pdf|archive-date=7 August 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.gia.edu/emerald-history-lore|title=Emerald History and Lore}}</ref>
* [[Amethyst]] — a form of [[quartz]] was first used by the Ancient Egyptians.<ref name="castellani">Augosto Castellani (famous Italian 19th century jeweler) (1871), ''[https://archive.org/details/gemsnotesandext00castgoog Gems, Notes and Extracts]'', p. 34, London, Bell and Daldy, {{ISBN|1-141-06174-0}}.</ref>
* [[Malachite]] — Malachite was mined from deposits near the Isthmus of Suez and the Sinai as early as 4000 BC.<ref>{{cite journal |last1= Susarla |first1=S.M |date= 2016 |title= The colourful history of malachite green: from ancient Egypt to modern surgery |url= https://www.ijoms.com/article/S0901-5027(16)30250-8/fulltext |journal= International Journal of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery|volume=46 |issue=3 |pages=401–403 |doi=10.1016/j.ijom.2016.09.022 |pmid=27771151 }}</ref>
* [[Electrum]] — Electrum was used as early as the third millennium BC in [[Old Kingdom of Egypt]], sometimes as an exterior coating to the [[pyramidion]]s atop [[ancient Egypt]]ian [[pyramid]]s and [[obelisk]]s. It was also used in the making of ancient [[Beaker (archaeology)|drinking vessels]]. Electrum is mentioned in an account of an expedition sent by Pharaoh [[Sahure]] of the [[Fifth Dynasty of Egypt]].{{sfn|Baker|2008|pp=343–345}}{{sfn|Wicker|1998|p=155}}

=== Medicine ===

==== Discoveries ====

* [[Meninges]]<ref name="Wilkins, Robert H. 1992">{{Cite book|title=Neurosurgical Classics (2nd ed.).|author=Wilkins, Robert H.|date=1992|publisher=Park Ridge, Illinois: American Association of Neurological Surgeons.|isbn=978-1-879284-09-8}}</ref>
* [[Cerebrospinal fluid]]<ref name="Wilkins, Robert H. 1992"/>
* [[Paralysis]]<ref>{{cite book|title=Great Ideas in the History of Surgery|author1=Zimmerman, Leo M. |author2=Veith, Ilza|date=1993|publisher=San Francisco: Jeremy Norman Publishing|isbn=978-0-930405-53-3}}</ref>
* [[Urinary incontinence]] — The management of urinary incontinence with pads is mentioned in the earliest medical book known, the [[Ebers Papyrus]] (1500 B.C).<ref>{{cite book|last1=Becker|first1=Horst-Dieter|title=Urinary and fecal incontinence: an interdisciplinary approach; with 89 tables|last2=Stenzl|first2=Arnulf|last3=Wallwiener|first3=Diethelm|last4=Zittel|first4=Tilman T.|publisher=Springer|year=2005|isbn=978-3540222255|location=Berlin [u.a.]|page=232|name-list-style=vanc}}</ref>
* [[Anatomy]] — In 1600 BCE, the [[Edwin Smith Papyrus]], an [[Ancient Egyptian medicine|Ancient Egyptian]] [[Medical manual|medical text]], described the [[heart]], its vessels, [[liver]], [[spleen]], [[kidneys]], [[hypothalamus]], [[uterus]] and [[Urinary bladder|bladder]], and showed the [[blood vessel]]s diverging from the heart. The [[Ebers Papyrus]] (c. 1550 BCE) features a "treatise on the heart", with vessels carrying all the body's fluids to or from every member of the body.<ref>{{cite book | title = The Greatest Benefit to Mankind: A Medical History of Humanity from Antiquity to the Present | last = Porter | first = R. | year = 1997 | publisher = Harper Collins | isbn = 978-0-00-215173-3 | pages=49–50}}</ref>
* [[Circulatory system]] — The earliest known writings on the circulatory system are found in the Ebers Papyrus (16th century BCE), an [[Ancient Egyptian medicine|ancient Egyptian medical papyrus]] containing over 700 prescriptions and remedies, both physical and spiritual. In the [[papyrus]], it acknowledges the connection of the heart to the arteries. The Egyptians thought air came in through the mouth and into the lungs and heart. From the heart, the air travelled to every member through the arteries. Although this concept of the circulatory system is only partially correct, it represents one of the earliest accounts of scientific thought.<ref>{{cite journal|title=Science Direct: Cardio-vascular system in Ancient Egypt.|journal=Journal of Vascular Surgery|date=July 2014|volume=60|issue=1|pages=260–263|doi=10.1016/j.jvs.2014.04.056|last1=Barr|first1=Justin|pmid=24970660|doi-access=free}}</ref>
* [[Cataract surgery]] — The earliest known depiction of cataract surgery is on a statue from the [[Fifth dynasty of Egypt|Fifth Dynasty]] (2467–2457 BCE).<ref>{{cite journal |url=https://journals.lww.com/jcrs/Citation/2009/03000/Cataract_surgery_in_ancient_Egypt.43.aspx |title=Cataract Surgery In Ancient Egypt: Journal of Cataract and Refractive Surgery|journal=Journal of Cataract & Refractive Surgery|date=March 2009|volume=35|issue=3|pages=607–608|doi=10.1016/j.jcrs.2008.11.052|last1=Ascaso|first1=Francisco J.|last2=Lizana|first2=Joaquín|last3=Cristóbal|first3=José A.|pmid=19251160}}</ref>
* [[Cancer]] — The earliest written record regarding cancer is from circa 1600 B.C in the Egyptian Edwin Smith Papyrus and describes breast cancer.<ref name=Hist1>{{cite journal |vauthors=Hajdu SI |s2cid=39667103 |title=A note from history: landmarks in history of cancer, part 1 |journal=Cancer |volume=117 |issue=5 |pages=1097–102 |date=March 2011 |pmid=20960499 |doi=10.1002/cncr.25553 |doi-access=free}}</ref>
* [[Diabetes]] — Diabetes was one of the first diseases described,<ref>{{cite book |author1=Brian C. Leutholtz |author2=Ignacio Ripoll |title=Exercise and disease management |publisher=CRC Press |location=Boca Raton|isbn=978-1-4398-2759-8 |page=25 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eAn9-bm_pi8C&pg=PA25 |edition=2nd |date=2011-04-25 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160403054841/https://books.google.com/books?id=eAn9-bm_pi8C&pg=PA25 |archive-date=2016-04-03 }}</ref> with an Egyptian manuscript from {{Abbr|c.|circa}} 1500 [[Common Era|BCE]] mentioning "too great emptying of the urine." The Ebers papyrus includes a recommendation for a drink to take in such cases.<ref>{{cite magazine|last1=Roberts|first1=Jacob|title=Sickening sweet|magazine=Distillations|date=2015|volume=1|issue=4|pages=12–15 |url=https://www.sciencehistory.org/distillations/magazine/sickening-sweet |access-date=20 March 2018}}</ref> The first described cases are believed to have been type&nbsp;1 diabetes.<ref>{{cite book |editor-first=Leonid |editor-last=Poretsky |title=Principles of diabetes mellitus|year=2009|publisher=Springer|location=New York|isbn=978-0-387-09840-1|page=3|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=i0qojvF1SpUC&pg=PA3 |edition=2nd |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160404170919/https://books.google.com/books?id=i0qojvF1SpUC&pg=PA3 |archive-date=2016-04-04 }}</ref>
* [[Dracunculiasis]] or Guinea-worm disease and its treatment — The Ebers Papyrus says that the cure to the Guinea-Worm disease is to wrap the emerging end of the worm around a stick and slowly pull it out. 3,500 years later, this remains the standard treatment.<ref name="TropMed">{{cite book |last1=Palmer |first1=Philip E.S. |last2=Reeder |first2=Maurice M. |date=2008 |orig-date=1981 |title=The Imaging of Tropical Diseases: With Epidemiological, Pathological and Clinical Correlation |edition=DVD |chapter=Chapter 27: Guinea Worm Infection (Dracunculiasis) |chapter-url=http://www.isradiology.org/tropical_deseases/tmcr/chapter27/intro.htm |publisher=[[Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences]] |lccn=99039417 |access-date=19 June 2020 |archive-date=14 June 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150614060419/http://www.isradiology.org/tropical_deseases/tmcr/chapter27/intro.htm }}</ref>
* [[Crutch]] — Crutches were used in [[ancient Egypt]].<ref name=Fairley>{{cite news|last1=Fairley|first1=Miki|title=Innovative Crutch Designs: More Gain, Much Less Pain|url=https://opedge.com/innovative-crutch-designs-more-gain-much-less-pain/|website=The O&P Edge |date=April 2008}}</ref><ref name="vyse">{{cite web |last1=Vyse |first1=Stuart |title=In Praise Of The Crutch-Makers |date=8 May 2019 |url=https://skepticalinquirer.org/exclusive/in-praise-of-the-crutch-makers/ |publisher=Skeptical Inquirer |access-date=8 September 2019}}</ref>
* [[Hysteria]] — The oldest record of hysteria dates back to 1900 B.C. when Egyptians recorded behavioral abnormalities in adult women on medical papyrus.<ref name=":0">{{cite book|title=Approaching Hysteria: Disease and Its Interpretations.|author=Micale, Mark S.|date=15 January 2019|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=978-0-691-60561-6}}</ref> The Egyptians attributed the behavioral disturbances to a wandering uterus—thus later dubbing the condition hysteria.<ref name=":0" /> To treat hysteria Egyptian doctors prescribed various medications.<ref name=":0" /> For example, doctors put strong smelling substances on the patients' vulvas to encourage the uterus to return to its proper position.<ref name=":0" /> Another tactic was to smell or swallow unsavory herbs to encourage the uterus to flee back to the lower part of the female's stomach.<ref name=":0" />
* [[Hematuria]] — One of the main symptoms of [[Bilharzia]] was known and treated by the ancient Egyptians.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Urinary Schistosomiasis in Ancient Egypt |year=2009 |pmid=19617021 |last1=Ziskind |first1=B. |journal=Nephrologie & Therapeutique |volume=5 |issue=7 |pages=658–61 |doi=10.1016/j.nephro.2009.06.001}}</ref>
* [[Colorectal surgery]] — The [[Chester Beatty Medical Papyrus]], is one of the extant [[medical papyri]], from ancient Egypt. It is dedicated to magical incantations against headaches and remedies for [[proctology|anorectal ailments]],<ref name="BANOV-1965">{{cite journal |last=Banov |first=L. Jr. |date=December 1965 |title=The Chester Beatty Medical Papyrus: the earliest known treatise completely devoted to anorectal diseases |journal=Surgery |volume=58 |issue=6 |pages=1037–1043 |pmid=5322341 }} From the title (text not accessed).</ref> and is dated around 1200 BC.

==== Inventions ====

[[File:Prosthetic toe.jpg|thumb|Prosthetic toe from ancient Egypt]]
* [[Poultice]]<ref name="Ritner, Robert K. 2005">{{Cite book|title=The Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Egypt (Online ed.) "Medicine"..|author=Ritner, Robert K.|date=2005|publisher=In Redford, Donald B. (ed.). Oxford Reference. |isbn=978-0-19-518765-6}}</ref>
* [[Splint (medicine)|Splint]]<ref name="Ritner, Robert K. 2005"/>
[[File:Ancient Egyptian medical instruments.jpg|thumb|Inscription detailing ancient Egyptian medical instruments, including bone saws, suction cups, knives and scalpels, retractors, scales, lances, chisels and dental tools.]]

* [[Bandage]] — The Ancient Egyptians were the first to use adhesive bandages and were also the first to treat wounds with [[Honey]].<ref name="Ritner, Robert K. 2005"/><ref>{{cite journal|title=The History of Wound Care|year = 2012|pmc = 3601883|last1 = Shah|first1 = J. B.|journal = The Journal of the American College of Certified Wound Specialists|volume = 3|issue = 3|pages = 65–66|doi = 10.1016/j.jcws.2012.04.002|pmid = 24525756}}</ref>
* [[Prosthesis]] — Prosthetics appeared circa 3,000 BC. with the earliest evidence of prosthetics appearing in ancient Egypt and Iran. The earliest recorded mention of eye prosthetics is from the Egyptian story of the [[Eye of Horus]] dates circa 3000 BC, which involves the left eye of [[Horus]] being plucked out and then restored by [[Thoth]]. The Egyptians were also early pioneers of foot prosthetics, as shown by the wooden toe found on a body from the [[New Kingdom]] circa 1000 BC.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.uh.edu/engines/epi1705.htm |title=No. 1705: A 3000-Year-Old Toe |publisher=Uh.edu |date=2004-08-01 |access-date=2013-03-13 }}</ref>
* [[Intramedullary rod]] — The oldest intramedullary nail was found in the left knee of a [[mummy]] named [[Usermontu (mummy)|Usermontu]], the remains of an [[Ancient Egypt|Egyptian]] man from more than 3,500 years ago. Researchers believe the pin was inserted after the man's death, but before his burial.<ref name=byu>{{cite web |url=https://magazine.byu.edu/article/byu-professor-finds-evidence-of-advanced-surgery-in-ancient-mummy/ |title= BYU professor finds evidence of advanced surgery in ancient mummy |last=Snow |first=Karen |publisher=Brigham Young University |date= June 1996 |website=BYU Magazine |access-date=May 27, 2015}}</ref>
* [[Cauterization]] — Cauterization has been used to stop heavy bleeding since antiquity. The process was described in the [[Edwin Smith Papyrus]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Sullivan |first1=Richard |title=The identity and work of the ancient Egyptian surgeon |journal=Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine |date=August 1996 |volume=89 |issue=8 |page=472 <!-- section on cauterization --> |doi=10.1177/014107689608900813 |pmid=8795503 |pmc=1295891 |doi-access=free}}</ref>
* [[Toothpaste]] — Since 5000 BC, the Egyptians made a tooth powder, which consisted of powdered ashes of ox hooves, myrrh, powdered and burnt eggshells, and [[pumice]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.houstonspediatricdentist.com/blog/from-eggshells-to-nasa-the-fascinating-history-of-toothpaste/#:~:text=Ancient%20Egypt&text=Their%20toothpaste%20consisted%20of%20rock,a%20popular%20toothpaste%20ingredient%20today.|title=From Eggshells to NASA – The Fascinating History of Toothpaste|work=Dr. Natalie Harrison |date=30 March 2017}}</ref>
* [[Breath mint]]<ref>{{cite web|url=https://science.howstuffworks.com/innovation/inventions/5-amazing-ancient-egyptian-inventions6.htm|title=10 Amazing Ancient Egyptian Inventions|date=12 January 2011}}</ref>
* [[Tampon]] — The oldest printed medical document, [[Papyrus Ebers|papyrus ebers]], refers to the use of soft papyrus tampons by Egyptian women in the fifteenth century B.C.<ref>[http://www.straightdope.com/columns/read/2252/who-invented-tampons Who invented tampons?] 6 June 2006, The Straight Dope</ref>

==== Innovations ====

* [[Gynaecology]] — The [[Kahun Gynaecological Papyrus]], dated to about 1800 BC, deals with women's health gynaecological diseases, fertility, pregnancy, contraception, etc. Treatments are non surgical, comprising applying medicines to the affected body part or swallowing them. The womb is at times seen as the source of complaints manifesting themselves in other body parts.<ref>Laurinda S. Dixon. ''Perilous Chastity: Women and Illness in Pre-Enlightenment Art and Medicine'', Cornell University Press 1995, pp.15f.</ref>
* [[Pregnancy test]] — The ancient Egyptians watered bags of [[wheat]] and [[barley]] with the urine of a possibly pregnant woman. Germination indicated pregnancy. The type of grain that sprouted was taken as an indicator of the fetus's sex.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Ghalioungui|first1=P.|last2=Khalil|first2=SH.|last3=Ammar|first3=A. R.|title=On an Ancient Egyptian Method of Diagnosing Pregnancy and Determining Foetal Sex|date=July 1963|journal=Medical History|volume=7|issue=3|pages=241–6|doi=10.1017/s0025727300028386|issn=0025-7273|pmc=1034829|pmid=13960613}}</ref>
* [[Birth control]] — The Egyptian [[Ebers Papyrus]] from 1550&nbsp;BC and the [[Kahun Papyrus]] from 1850&nbsp;BC have within them some of the earliest documented descriptions of birth control: the use of honey, [[acacia]] leaves and lint to be placed in the vagina to block sperm.<ref name=History2010>{{cite book|last=Cuomo|first=Amy|chapter=Birth control|editor-last=O'Reilly|editor-first=Andrea|title=Encyclopedia of motherhood|year=2010|publisher=Sage Publications|location=Thousand Oaks, CA|isbn=978-1-4129-6846-1|pages=121–26|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Pcxqzal4bEYC&pg=PA124}}</ref><ref name=Lipsey2005>{{cite book|last1=Lipsey |first1= Richard G.|last2=Carlaw |first2=Kenneth|last3=Bekar |first3=Clifford|chapter=Historical Record on the Control of Family Size|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tSrGTMtBv50C&pg=PA335|pages=335–40|title=Economic Transformations: General Purpose Technologies and Long-Term Economic Growth|publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2005|isbn=978-0-19-928564-8}}</ref>
* [[Rhinoplasty]] — Treatments for the plastic repair of a broken nose are first mentioned in the [[Edwin Smith Papyrus]],<ref name=cossurg>{{cite book|last=Shiffman|first=Melvin|title=Cosmetic Surgery: Art and Techniques|publisher=Springer|isbn=978-3-642-21837-8|page=20|date=2012-09-05 }}</ref> a transcription of text dated to the [[Old Kingdom]] from 3000 to 2500 [[Before Christian Era|BCE]].<ref name=plsurgery>{{cite book|editor1-first=Peter C.|editor1-last=Neligan|editor2-first=Geoffrey C.|editor2-last=Gurtner|first1=Ricardo F.|last1=Mazzola|first2=Isabella C.|last2=Mazzola|title=Plastic Surgery: Principles|chapter=History of reconstructive and aesthetic surgery|publisher=Elsevier Health Sciences|isbn=978-1-4557-1052-2|pages=11–12|date=2012-09-05 }}</ref>
* [[Surgical suture]] — The earliest reports of surgical suture date to 3000 BC in ancient Egypt, and the oldest known suture is in a [[mummy]] from 1100 BC.<ref>{{cite book|title=Suture manual|url=https://eltident.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/12/41_suturmanual-5.pdf|page=4}}</ref>
* [[Ophthalmology]] — In the Ebers Papyrus from ancient Egypt dating to 1550 BC, a section is devoted to eye diseases.<ref name="mrcophth">{{cite web|title=History of Ophthalmology|url=http://www.mrcophth.com/Historyofophthalmology/Introductory.htm|website=www.mrcophth.com}}</ref>

=== Mathematics ===

==== Algebra ====

* [[Numeral system]] — Written evidence of the use of mathematics dates back to at least 3200 BC with the ivory labels found in Tomb U-j at [[Abydos, Egypt|Abydos]]. These labels appear to have been used as tags for grave goods and some are inscribed with numbers.<ref name="AI">{{cite journal |last=Imhausen |first=Annette|author-link=Annette Imhausen |title=Ancient Egyptian Mathematics: New Perspectives on Old Sources |journal=The Mathematical Intelligencer |volume=28 |issue=1 |year=2006 |pages=19–27 |doi=10.1007/bf02986998|s2cid=122060653}}</ref> Further evidence of the use of the base 10 number system can be found on the [[Narmer Macehead]] which depicts offerings of 400,000 oxen, 1,422,000 goats and 120,000 prisoners.<ref name="Burton">{{cite book |last=Burton |first=David |title=The History of Mathematics: An Introduction |publisher=McGraw–Hill |year=2005 |isbn=978-0-07-305189-5 }}</ref>
[[File:Eye of Ra (fractions).svg|thumb|240px|right|Arithmetic values thought to have been represented by parts of the Eye of Horus]]
* [[Binary number|Binary]] — The method used for [[ancient Egyptian multiplication]] is also closely related to binary numbers. In this method, multiplying one number by a second is performed by a sequence of steps in which a value (initially the first of the two numbers) is either doubled or has the first number added back into it; the order in which these steps are to be performed is given by the binary representation of the second number. This method can be seen in use, for instance, in the [[Rhind Mathematical Papyrus]], which dates to around 1650 BC.<ref>{{citation|title=How Mathematics Happened: The First 50,000 Years|first=Peter Strom|last=Rudman|publisher=Prometheus Books|year=2007|isbn=9781615921768|pages=135–136|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BtcQq4RUfkUC&pg=PA135}}.</ref><ref>{{citation|title=Numerical Notation: A Comparative History|first=Stephen|last=Chrisomalis|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2010|isbn=9780521878180|pages=42–43|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ux--OWgWvBQC&pg=PA42}}.</ref>
* [[Fraction (mathematics)|Fraction]] and [[Fraction (mathematics)#Arithmetic with fractions|Arithmetics with fractions]] — The earliest fractions were [[multiplicative inverse|reciprocals]] of [[integer]]s: ancient symbols representing one part of two, one part of three, one part of four, and so on.<ref name="eves">{{cite book |last=Eves |first=Howard |title=An introduction to the history of mathematics |year=1990 |publisher=Saunders College Pub. |location=Philadelphia |isbn=978-0-03-029558-4 |edition=6th}}</ref> The Egyptians used [[Egyptian fraction]]s {{circa|lk=no|1000}}&nbsp;BC. About 4000 years ago, Egyptians divided with fractions using slightly different methods. They used least common multiples with [[unit fraction]]s. Their methods gave the same answer as modern methods.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://egyptianmath.blogspot.com|title=Math History|author=Milo Gardner|date=19 December 2005|access-date=2006-01-18 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051219160259/http://egyptianmath.blogspot.com/|archive-date=19 December 2005|url-status=live}} See for examples and an explanation.</ref>
* [[Dyadic rational]] — The Egyptians also had a different notation for [[dyadic fraction]]s in the [[Akhmim Wooden Tablet]] and several Rhind Mathematical Papyrus problems.<ref>{{citation
  | title = Concept of the exponential law prior to 1900
  | last = Curtis | first = Lorenzo J.
  | journal = [[American Journal of Physics]]
  | year = 1978
  | volume = 46
  | issue = 9
  | pages = 896–906
  | doi = 10.1119/1.11512| bibcode = 1978AmJPh..46..896C }}.</ref>
* [[Equation|X (Unknown)]]
* [[Quadratic equation]] — The ancient Egyptians were the first civilization to develop and solve second-degree ([[Quadratic equation|quadratic]]) equations. This information is found in the [[Berlin Papyrus 6619|Berlin Papyrus]] fragment. Additionally, the Egyptians solve first-degree algebraic equations found in Rhind Mathematical Papyrus.<ref name=Moore94>{{cite book|last=Moore|first=Deborah Lela|title=The African roots of mathematics|year=1994|publisher=Professional Educational Services|location=Detroit, Mich.|isbn=1884123007|edition=2nd}}</ref>
* [[Exponentiation]] (Power of two) — The ancient Egyptians had laid out tables of a great number of powers of two, rather than recalculating them each time. The decomposition of a number thus consists of finding the powers of two which make it up. The Egyptians knew empirically that a given power of two would only appear once in a number.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cut-the-knot.org/Curriculum/Algebra/EgyptianMultiplication.shtml|title=Egyptian Multiplication}}</ref>
* [[Regula falsi]] — The simple false position technique is found in papyri from ancient [[Egyptian mathematics]].<ref>Jean-Luc Chabert, ed., ''A History of Algorithms: From the Pebble to the Microchip'' (Berlin: Springer, 1999), pp. 86–91.</ref>
* [[Square root]] — The Rhind Mathematical Papyrus is a copy from 1650&nbsp;BC of an earlier [[Berlin Papyrus 6619|Berlin Papyrus]] and other texts{{snd}}possibly the [[Kahun Papyrus]]{{snd}}that shows how the Egyptians extracted square roots by an inverse proportion method.<ref>Anglin, W.S. (1994). ''Mathematics: A Concise History and Philosophy''. New York: Springer-Verlag.</ref>
* [[0]] — By 1770&nbsp;BC, the Egyptians had a symbol for zero in accounting texts. The symbol nfr, meaning beautiful, was also used to indicate the base level in drawings of tombs and pyramids and distances were measured relative to the base line as being above or below this line.<ref>{{cite book |last=Joseph |first=George Gheverghese |page=[https://archive.org/details/crestpeacocknone00jose/page/n116 86] |title=The Crest of the Peacock: Non-European Roots of Mathematics |url=https://archive.org/details/crestpeacocknone00jose |url-access=registration |isbn=978-0-691-13526-7 |publisher=Princeton UP |year=2011|edition=Third }}</ref>
* [[Plus and minus signs|Mathematical symbols]] — The [[Egyptian hieroglyph]]ic sign for addition resembled a pair of legs walking in the direction in which the text was written ([[Egyptian language|Egyptian]] could be written either from right to left or left to right), with the reverse sign indicating subtraction:<ref>
{{cite journal
 | last = Karpinski | first = Louis C.
 | doi = 10.2307/2973180
 | issue = 6
 | journal = [[The American Mathematical Monthly]]
 | mr = 1518824
 | pages = 257–265
 | title = Algebraical Developments Among the Egyptians and Babylonians
 | volume = 24
 | year = 1917| jstor = 2973180
 }}</ref>
{| align="center"
|<hiero>D54</hiero> or <hiero>D55</hiero>
|}

* [[Pi]] — Based on the measurements of the [[Great Pyramid of Giza]] {{nowrap|(c. 2560 BC)}} ,{{efn|Allegedly built so that the circle whose radius is equal to the height of the pyramid has a circumference equal to the perimeter of the base}} some Egyptologists have claimed that the ancient Egyptians used an approximation of {{pi}} as {{sfrac|22|7}} from as early as the [[Old Kingdom]].<ref>Petrie, W.M.F. ''Wisdom of the Egyptians'' (1940)</ref><ref>Verner, Miroslav. ''The Pyramids: The Mystery, Culture, and Science of Egypt's Great Monuments.'' Grove Press. 2001 (1997). {{isbn|0-8021-3935-3}}</ref> The Rhind Papyrus, dated around 1650&nbsp;BC but copied from a document dated to 1850&nbsp;BC, has a formula for the area of a circle that treats {{pi}} as {{nowrap|({{sfrac|16|9}})<sup>2</sup> ≈}} 3.16.
* The [[Golden ratio|Golden number]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.goldennumber.net/phi-pi-great-pyramid-egypt/#:~:text=Phi%2C%20Pi%20and%20the%20Great,The%20Golden%20Ratio%3A%20Phi%2C%201.618|title=Phi, Pi and the Great Pyramid of Giza|date=18 August 2012 }}</ref>
* [[Arithmetic progression]] — [[Rhind Mathematical Papyrus]] problem number 40.<ref name="Chace, Arnold Buffum 1929"/>
* [[Arithmetic mean|Pefsu problem]] (modern day: Arithmetic mean and Arithmetic progression)<ref>{{Cite book|title=Ancient Egyptian Science: A Source Book. Volume 3: Ancient Egyptian Mathematics. Memoirs of the American Philosophical Society|author=Clagett, Marshall|date=1999|publisher=Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society.|page=232|isbn=0-87169-232-5}}</ref>
* [[Geometric mean]] and [[Geometric progression]] — see problem no.79 in [[Rhind Mathematical Papyrus]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Collections: Egyptian, Classical, Ancient Near Eastern Art: Fragments of Rhind Mathematical Papyrus |publisher=Brooklyn Museum |url=http://www.brooklynmuseum.org/opencollection/objects/118304/Fragments_of_Rhind_Mathematical_Papyrus |access-date=November 1, 2012 }}</ref>
* The [[Rhind Mathematical Papyrus]] — from around 1550 BC, has [[Egyptian fraction]] expansions of different forms for prime and composite numbers.<ref>Bruins, Evert Marie, review in ''Mathematical Reviews'' of {{cite journal | last = Gillings | first = R.J. | doi = 10.1007/BF01307175 | journal = Archive for History of Exact Sciences | mr = 0497458 | pages = 291–298 | title = The recto of the Rhind Mathematical Papyrus. How did the ancient Egyptian scribe prepare it? | volume = 12 | issue = 4 | year = 1974| s2cid = 121046003 }}</ref>
* [[Conversion of units]] — Rhind Mathematical Papyrus problem number 42.<ref name="Chace, Arnold Buffum 1929"/>
* [[Seked]] (Modern day [[Slope]]) — The seked is proportional to the reciprocal of our modern measure of [[slope]] or gradient, and to the cotangent of the angle of elevation.<ref name=gillings>Gillings: Mathematics in the Time of the Pharaohs 1982: pp 212</ref><ref>Gillings: ''Mathematics in the Time of the Pharaohs'' 1982: pp 212</ref>
* [[Trigonometry]] and [[Trigonometric functions]] — Rhind Mathematical Papyrus problem number 56. The Egyptians, used a primitive form of trigonometry for building [[pyramid]]s in the 2nd millennium BC.<ref>Maor, Eli (1998). Trigonometric Delights. Princeton University Press. p. 20. {{ISBN|978-0-691-09541-7}}.</ref>
* [[Red auxiliary number]] — Red auxiliary numbers were written in red ink in the [[Rhind Mathematical Papyrus]], apparently used as aids for arithmetic computations involving [[fraction (mathematics)|fractions]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Gillings |first=Richard J. |title=Mathematics in the Time of the Pharaohs |url=https://archive.org/details/mathematicsintim0000gill |url-access=registration |year=1982 |publisher=[[Dover Publications]] |isbn=9780486243153 |oclc=301431218}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Clagett |first=Marshall |author-link=Marshall Clagett |title=Ancient Egyptian Science: Ancient Egyptian mathematics |url=https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_8c10QYoGa4UC |publisher=[[American Philosophical Society]] |year=1989 |isbn=9780871692320 |oclc=313400062}}</ref>

==== Areas and Volumes ====

* [[Area]] of [[Triangle]] — [[Rhind Mathematical Papyrus]] problem number 51.<ref name="Chace, Arnold Buffum 1929">{{cite book |last=Chace |first=Arnold Buffum |orig-date=1927–29 |title=The Rhind Mathematical Papyrus: Free Translation and Commentary with Selected Photographs, Translations, Transliterations and Literal Translations |series=Classics in Mathematics Education |volume=8. 2 vols |location=Oberlin |publisher=Mathematical Association of America |edition=Reston: National Council of Teachers of Mathematics Reprinted |year=1979 |isbn=0-87353-133-7 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/rhindmathematica0000unse }}</ref>
* [[Area]] of [[Trapezoid]] — Rhind Mathematical Papyrus problem number 52.<ref name="Chace, Arnold Buffum 1929"/>
* [[Surface area]] of [[Sphere]] — The Tenth problem of the [[Moscow Mathematical Papyrus]] asks for a calculation of the surface area of a [[Sphere|hemisphere]] (Struve, Gillings) or possibly the area of a semi-cylinder (Peet). Below we assume that the problem refers to the area of a hemisphere.<ref>Williams, Scott W. [http://www.math.buffalo.edu/mad/Ancient-Africa/mad_ancient_egypt_geometry.html#moscow10 Egyptian Mathematical Papyri]</ref>
* [[Volume]] of [[Cylinder]] — Rhind Mathematical Papyrus problem number 41.<ref name="Chace, Arnold Buffum 1929"/>
* [[Volume]] of [[Prism (geometry)|Prism]] — Rhind Mathematical Papyrus problem number 46.<ref name="Chace, Arnold Buffum 1929"/>
* [[Volume]] of [[Pyramid]]
* [[Volume]] of [[Frustum]] — The 14th problem of the Moscow Mathematical Papyrus calculates the volume of a [[frustum]]. Problem 14 states that a pyramid has been truncated in such a way that the top area is a square of length 2 units, the bottom a square of length 4 units, and the height 6 units, as shown. The volume is found to be 56 cubic units, which is correct.<ref>Clagett, Marshall. 1999. Ancient Egyptian Science: A Source Book. Volume 3: Ancient Egyptian Mathematics. Memoirs of the American Philosophical Society 232. Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society. {{ISBN|0-87169-232-5}}</ref>

==== Measurement ====

* [[System of measurement]] and [[Metrology]] — Ancient Egypt was one of the first civilization to have system of measurement.<ref name="MSC-History">{{cite web|title=History of Metrology|date=17 June 2016|url=http://www.msc-conf.com/history-of-metrology/|publisher=Measurement Science Conference|access-date=28 February 2017|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170301094329/http://www.msc-conf.com/history-of-metrology/|archive-date=1 March 2017}}</ref> The [[Ancient Egyptian units of measurement|Ancient Egyptian measuring system]] contained measuring units for 
* [[Ancient Egyptian units of measurement#Length|Length]] — Egyptian units of length are attested from the [[Early Dynastic Period of Egypt|Early Dynastic Period]]. Although it dates to the 5th dynasty, the [[Palermo stone]] recorded the level of the [[Nile River]] during the reign of the Early Dynastic [[pharaoh]] [[Djer]], when the height of the Nile was recorded as 6 cubits and 1 palm (about {{convert|3.217|m|ftin|abbr=on|sp=us|disp=or}}). A [[Third dynasty of Egypt|3rd Dynasty]] diagram shows how to construct an elliptical vault using simple measures along an arc. The [[Saqqara ostracon|ostracon depicting this diagram]] was found near the [[Step Pyramid]] of [[Saqqara]]. A curve is divided into five sections and the height of the curve is given in cubits, palms, and digits in each of the sections.<ref name="EG">{{cite book|last=Englebach|first=Clarke|title=Ancient Egyptian Construction and Architecture|year=1990|publisher=Dover|location=New York|isbn=0486264858}}</ref>
[[File:Coudée-turin.jpg|thumb|550px|center|Cubit rod from the Turin Museum.]]

* [[Ancient Egyptian units of measurement#Area|Area]] — Records of land area also date to the [[Early Dynastic Period of Egypt|Early Dynastic Period]]. The [[Palermo stone]] records grants of land expressed in terms of ''kha'' and ''setat''. Mathematical papyri also include units of land area in their problems. For example, several problems in the [[Moscow Mathematical Papyrus]] give the area of rectangular plots of land in terms of ''setat'' and the ratio of the sides and then require the scribe to solve for their exact lengths.<ref name="Clagett 1999">{{citation |last=Clagett |first=Marshall |author-link=Marshall Clagett |title=Ancient Egyptian Science: A Source Book, ''Vol. III:'' Ancient Egyptian Mathematics |series=''Memoirs of the APS'', Vol. 232 |date=1999 |publisher=American Philosophical Society |location=Philadelphia |isbn=978-0-87169-232-0 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8c10QYoGa4UC }}.</ref>
* [[Ancient Egyptian units of measurement#Volume|Volume]]<ref name="Clagett 1999"/>
* [[Ancient Egyptian units of measurement#Weight|Weight]] — Weighs were known since the [[Old Kingdom of Egypt|Old Kingdom]] and perhaps as early as the [[Early Dynastic Period of Egypt|Early Dynastic Period]]. Weights were measured in terms of [[Deben (unit)|deben]]. This unit would have been equivalent to 13.6&nbsp;grams in the [[Old Kingdom]] and [[Middle Kingdom of Egypt|Middle Kingdom]]. During the [[New Kingdom]] however it was equivalent to 91&nbsp;grams. For smaller amounts the qedet ({{frac|1|10}} of a deben) and the shematy ({{frac|1|12}} of a deben) were used.<ref name="MTP">{{cite book|last=Gillings|first=Richard|title=Mathematics in the Time of the Pharaohs|year=1972|publisher=MIT|isbn=0262070456|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/mathematicsintim0000gill_o9t9}}</ref>
* [[Triangulation]] — The use of triangles to estimate distances dates to antiquity. In the 6th century BC, about 250 years prior to the establishment of the [[Ptolemaic dynasty]], the Greek philosopher [[Thales]] is recorded as using [[similar triangles]] to estimate the height of the [[pyramids]] of [[ancient Egypt]]. He measured the length of the pyramids' shadows and that of his own at the same moment, and compared the ratios to his height ([[intercept theorem]]).<ref name="Life of Thales">{{citation|last=Diogenes Laërtius|author-link=Diogenes Laërtius|contribution=Life of Thales|title=The Lives and Opinions of Eminent Philosophers |at=I, 27 |url=https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Lives_of_the_Eminent_Philosophers/Book_I#Thales |access-date=2008-02-22}}</ref> Such techniques would have been familiar to the ancient Egyptians. Problem 57 of the [[Rhind papyrus]], a thousand years earlier, defines the ''seqt'' or ''[[seked]]'' as the ratio of the run to the rise of a [[slope]], ''i.e.'' the reciprocal of gradients as measured today.

=== Science ===

* [[Geologic map]] — The oldest known geologic map is the [[Turin Papyrus Map|Turin papyrus]] (1150 BCE), which shows the location of building stone and [[gold]] deposits in Egypt.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Harrell |first1=James A. |first2=V. Max |last2=Brown |year=1992 |title=The world's oldest surviving geological map—the 1150 BC Turin papyrus from Egypt |journal=[[The Journal of Geology]] |volume=100 |issue=1 |pages=3–18 |doi=10.1086/629568 |jstor=30082315 |bibcode=1992JG....100....3H |s2cid=140154575 }}</ref><ref name="Klemm">{{cite book |last1=Klemm |first1=Rosemarie |last2=Klemm |first2=Dietrich |title=Gold and Gold Mining in Ancient Egypt and Nubia |date=2013 |publisher=Springer |location=Heidelberg |isbn=9783642225079 |pages=132–136}}</ref> it would be another 2900 years before the next geologic map was made and this was in France during the mid-1700's. the [[Turin Papyrus Map|Turin Papyrus]] is also a [[topographic map]] and the first relatively modern-looking of its kind.

=== Astronomy ===

[[File:Ancient-egyptian-sundial.jpg|thumb|World's oldest sundial, from Egypt's Valley of the Kings (c. 1500 BC)]]
* [[Decan]] — Decans are 36 groups of stars (small constellations) used in the Ancient Egyptian astronomy. They rose consecutively on the horizon throughout each Earth rotation. The rising of each decan marked the beginning of a new decanal "hour" (Greek hōra) of the night for the ancient Egyptians, and they were used as a sidereal star clock beginning by at least the 9th or 10th Dynasty (c. 2100 BCE).<ref>Symons, S. L., Cockcroft, R., Bettencourt, J. and Koykka, C. (2013). Ancient Egyptian Astronomy [Online database] [http://aea.physics.mcmaster.ca/index.php/en/database/diagonal-star-tables Diagonal Star Tables]</ref>
* The discovery of [[Algol]] — An Ancient Egyptian Calendar of Lucky and Unlucky Days composed some 3,200 years ago is claimed to be the oldest historical document of the discovery of Algol.<ref>{{cite journal|display-authors=6|author=Porceddu, S.|author2=Jetsu, L.|author3=Lyytinen, J.|author4=Kajatkari, P.|author5=Lehtinen, J.|author6=Markkanen, T.|author7=Toivari-Viitala, J.|title=Evidence of Periodicity in Ancient Egyptian Calendars of Lucky and Unlucky Days|journal = Cambridge Archaeological Journal|volume =18|issue=3|date = 2008|pages = 327–339|doi=10.1017/S0959774308000395|bibcode = 2008CArcJ..18..327P |s2cid=162969143|url=https://zenodo.org/record/896419 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|display-authors=6|author=Jetsu, L.|author2=Porceddu, S.|author3=Lyytinen, J.|author4=Kajatkari, P.|author5=Lehtinen, J.|author6=Markkanen, T.|author7=Toivari-Viitala, J.|title=Did the Ancient Egyptians Record the Period of the Eclipsing Binary Algol – The Raging One? |journal = The Astrophysical Journal|volume =773|issue=1|date = 2013|pages = A1 (14pp)|doi = 10.1088/0004-637X/773/1/1|arxiv = 1204.6206 |bibcode = 2013ApJ...773....1J |s2cid=119191453}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|author=Jetsu, L.|author2=Porceddu, S.|title=Shifting Milestones of Natural Sciences: The Ancient Egyptian Discovery of Algol's Period Confirmed|journal = PLOS ONE|volume = 10 | issue = 12 |date = 2015|pages = e.0144140 (23pp)|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0144140|pmid=26679699|pmc=4683080|arxiv = 1601.06990 |bibcode = 2015PLoSO..1044140J |doi-access=free}}</ref>
* [[Sothic cycle]]
* [[Calendar]]{{sfnp|Clagett|1995|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=xKKPUpDOTKAC&pg=PA28 28]}}
* [[Star clock]]<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/250138461|title=Ancient Egyptian Star Clocks and Their Theory}}</ref>
* [[Solstice]] and [[Equinox]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://time.com/4370905/first-summer-solstice-2016/|title=Who Discovered The Solstice First|date=20 June 2016 }}</ref>
* [[Sundial]]s — The earliest sundials known from the archaeological record are shadow clocks (1500 [[Anno Domini|BC]] or [[Common Era|BCE]]) from ancient [[Egyptian astronomy]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.wijzerweb.be/egypteengels.html |title=The oldest surviving sundial |access-date=28 December 2020 |archive-date=11 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210411014013/http://www.wijzerweb.be/egypteengels.html }}</ref>

=== Tools and machines ===

* [[Core drill]] — The earliest core drills were those used by the [[ancient Egyptians]], invented in 3000 BC.<ref name="Delleur">{{cite book|author=Jacques W. Delleur|title=The Handbook of Groundwater Engineering, Second Edition|date=12 December 2010|publisher=Taylor & Francis|isbn=978-0-8493-4316-2|page=7 in chapter 2}}</ref>
* [[Papyrus|Papyrus Paper]] — Papyrus paper was first manufactured in Egypt as far back as the fourth millennium BCE.<ref>Houston, Keith, ''The Book: A Cover-to-Cover Exploration of the Most Powerful Object of our Time'', W. W. Norton & Company, 2016, pp.4–8 excerpt [https://delanceyplace.com/view-archives.php?p=3763]</ref><ref name=BritishMuseum>{{cite journal|title=Ayn Sukhna and Wadi el-Jarf: Two newly discovered pharaonic harbours on the Suez Gulf|journal=British Museum Studies in Ancient Egypt and Sudan|last=Tallet|first=Pierre|volume=18|year=2012|pages=147–68|issn=2049-5021|url=https://www.britishmuseum.org/PDF/Tallet.pdf|access-date=21 April 2013}}</ref><ref name=Skeat>H. Idris Bell and T.C. Skeat, 1935. [http://www-user.uni-bremen.de/~wie/Egerton/BellSkeat2.html "Papyrus and its uses"] ([[British Museum]] pamphlet). {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131018121945/http://www-user.uni-bremen.de/~wie/Egerton/BellSkeat2.html |date=18 October 2013}}</ref> The earliest archaeological evidence of papyrus was excavated in 2012 and 2013 at [[Wadi al-Jarf]], an [[ancient Egypt]]ian [[harbor]] located on the [[Red Sea]] coast. These documents, the [[Diary of Merer]], date from c. 2560–2550 BCE (end of the reign of [[Khufu]]).<ref name=BritishMuseum/> The papyrus rolls describe the last years of building the [[Great Pyramid of Giza]].<ref>{{cite web |title=The World's Oldest Papyrus and What It Can Tell Us About the Great Pyramids |url=http://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/ancient-egypt-shipping-mining-farming-economy-pyramids-180956619/ |access-date=2015-09-27 |first=Alexander |last=Stille}}</ref>
* [[Lathe]] — The lathe is an ancient tool. The earliest evidence of a lathe dates back to [[Ancient Egypt]] around 1300 BC.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.brighthubengineering.com/manufacturing-technology/59033-what-is-a-lathe-machine-history-parts-and-operation/ |title=What is a Lathe Machine? History, Parts, and Operation |website=Brighthub Engineering |date=12 December 2009 |access-date=26 March 2018}}</ref> There is also tenuous evidence for its existence at a Mycenaean Greek site, dating back as far as the 13th or 14th century BC.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.turningtools.co.uk.wgo.ca/history2/history-turning2.html |title=A brief history of woodturning |last=Clifford |first=Brian |website=The Woodturner's Workshop |publisher=Woodturners' Guild of Ontario |access-date=2018-07-24 }}</ref>
* [[Herodotus Machine]] — The Herodotus Machine was a machine described by [[Herodotus]], a [[Ancient Greece|Greek]] [[historian]]. Herodotus claims this invention enabled the ancient Egyptians to construct the [[Egyptian pyramids|pyramids]]. The contraption supposedly allowed workers to lift heavy building materials. Herodotus is believed to have encountered the device while traveling through Egypt. With limited reference and no true schematics, this machine has stimulated many historians' theories of how the Ancient Egyptians were able to create pyramids.<ref name=hist>Herodotus, Robin Waterfield, and Carolyn Dewald. ''The Histories''. Oxford: Oxford UP, 2008. Print.</ref>
* [[Lever]] — Levers (as machines used in lifting heavy weights) were invented in Ancient Egypt. In [[ancient Egypt technology]], workmen used the lever to move and uplift obelisks weighing more than 100 tons. This is evident from the recesses in the large blocks and the [[Lifting boss|handling bosses]] which could not be used for any purpose other than for levers.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Clarke |first1=Somers |last2=Engelbach |first2=Reginald |title=Ancient Egyptian Construction and Architecture |date=1990 |publisher=[[Courier Corporation]] |isbn=9780486264851 |pages=86–90}}</ref>
* [[Loom]] — Looms were used in [[ancient Egypt]] as early as 4400 BC, a foot pedal was used for the earliest horizontal frame [[loom]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Bruno |first1=Leonard C. |last2=Olendorf |first2=Donna |title=Science and technology firsts |date=1997 |publisher=[[Gale Research]] |isbn=9780787602567 |page=[https://archive.org/details/sciencetechnolog0000brun/page/2 2] |url=https://archive.org/details/sciencetechnolog0000brun |url-access=registration |quote=4400 B.C. Earliest evidence of the use of a horizontal loom is its depiction on a pottery dish found in Egypt and dated to this time. These first true frame looms are equipped with foot pedals to lift the warp threads, leaving the weaver's hands free to pass and beat the weft thread.}}</ref>

[[File:Papyrus.jpg|thumb|Papyrus (P. BM EA 10591 recto column IX, beginning of lines 13–17)]]
* [[Pulley]] — The earliest evidence of pulleys date back to Ancient Egypt in the [[Twelfth Dynasty of Egypt|Twelfth Dynasty]] (1991–1802 BCE)<ref>{{cite book |last1=Arnold |first1=Dieter |title=Building in Egypt: Pharaonic Stone Masonry |date=1991 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=9780195113747 |page=71}}</ref>

[[File:Heratic script limestone.jpg|right|thumb|One of four official letters to [[Vizier (Ancient Egypt)|vizier]] Khay copied onto a [[limestone]] ostracon, in Egyptian [[Hieratic]] ]]
* [[Razor]] — Excavations in [[Egypt]] have unearthed solid gold and copper razors in tombs dating back to the 4th millennium BC.<ref>[https://www.britannica.com/technology/razor razor]</ref>
* [[Rope stretcher]] — a rope stretcher (or harpedonaptai) was a [[Surveyor (surveying)|surveyor]] who [[Measurement|measured]] [[real property]] demarcations and [[foundation (architecture)|foundations]] using [[knotted cord]]s, stretched so the rope did not sag. The practice is depicted in tomb paintings of the [[Theban Necropolis]].<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=n-4eWtgEXjoC&pg=PT282 |page=282 |title=Evidence and Procedures for Boundary Location |isbn=9780470901601 |last1=Robillard |first1=Walter G. |last2=Wilson |first2=Donald A. |last3=Brown |first3=Curtis M. |last4=Eldridge |first4=Winfield |date=31 January 2011|publisher=John Wiley & Sons }}</ref> rope-stretching itself, are attested over 3000 years from the [[Early Dynastic Period (Egypt)|early dynastic period]] to the [[Ptolemaic kingdom]].<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fWKYBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA98 |page=98 |title=Architecture and Mathematics from Antiquity to the Future: Volume I: Antiquity to the 1500s |isbn=9783319001371 |last1=Williams |first1=Kim|author1-link=Kim Williams (architect) |last2=Ostwald |first2=Michael J. |date=9 February 2015|publisher=Birkhäuser }}</ref>
* [[Plumb bob]] — The Plumb bob has been used since at least the time of ancient Egypt<ref name="Stocks2003">Denys A. Stocks. ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=oLDuHvQODoIC&pg=PA180 Experiments in Egyptian archaeology: stoneworking technology in ancient Egypt]''. Routledge; 2003. {{ISBN|978-0-415-30664-5}}. p. 180.</ref>
* [[Tweezers]] — Tweezers are known to have been used in [[prehistoric Egypt|predynastic Egypt]].<ref name="Childe000">{{cite book| title = The Bronze Age | vauthors = Childe V | publisher = Biblo & Tannen Publishers | year = 1963 | isbn = 978-0-8196-0123-0 | volume = 3 | series = Archives of civilization }}</ref>
* [[Ostracon]] — The [[Saqqara ostracon]] is an [[ostracon]], an [[Egyptian antiquities|Egyptian antiquity]], tracing to the period of [[Djoser]] ([[2650 BC]]),<ref name="egyptorigins.org/saqqaraostracon">{{cite web|url=http://www.egyptorigins.org/saqqaraostracon.htm |title=AN ARCHITECT'S DIAGRAM OF THE 3RD DYNASTY|author=Battiscombe Gunn|date=1926|access-date=30 April 2016}}</ref>
* [[Ink]] — Ink was used in [[Ancient Egypt]] for writing and drawing on [[papyrus]] from at least the 26th century BC.<ref name=BritishMuseum/>
* [[Siphon]] — Ancient Egyptian reliefs from 1500 BC depict siphons used to extract liquids from large storage jars.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.moundtop.com/pdf/AncientWinemaking.pdf |title=Winemaking in Ancient Egypt: 2000 Years Before the Birth of Christ |website=moundtop.com |access-date=30 March 2024}}</ref><ref name="books.google.com.au">{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xuDDqqa8FlwC&q=siphon |title=A History of Mechanical Inventions |first=Abbott Payson |last=Usher |date=15 April 2018 |publisher=Courier Corporation |access-date=15 April 2018 |via=Google Books |isbn=978-0-4862-5593-4}}</ref>
* [[Merkhet]] — The merkhet was an ancient [[surveying]] and [[time]]keeping instrument. It involved the use of a bar with a [[plumb line]], attached to a wooden handle.{{sfn|Grimal|Shaw|1992|p=112}} It was used to track the alignment of certain stars called [[decan]]s or "baktiu" in the Ancient [[Egyptian Language|Egyptian]]. When visible, the stars could be used to measure the time at night. There were 10 stars for the 10 hours of the night; the day had a total of 24 hours including 12 hours for the day, 1 hour for sunset, and 1 hour for sunrise. Merkhets were used to replace [[sundial]]s, which were useless during the dark.{{sfn|Whitrow|1989|p=28}}
* [[Water clock]] — The oldest water clock of which there is physical evidence dates to c. 1417–1379 BC, during the reign of [[Amenhotep III]] where it was used in the [[Temple of Amen-Re]] at Karnak.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Cotterell |first1=Brian |last2=Kamminga |first2=Johan |year=1990 |title=Mechanics of pre-industrial technology: An introduction to the mechanics of ancient and traditional material culture |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=0-521-42871-8 |oclc=18520966}}, pp. 59–61</ref> The oldest documentation of the water clock is the tomb inscription of the 16th century BC Egyptian court official Amenemhet, which identifies him as its inventor.<ref>{{Harvnb|Cotterell|Kamminga|1990|pp=59–61}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Berlev |first=Oleg |editor=Donadoni, Sergio |others=Trans. Bianchi, Robert ''et al.'' |title=The Egyptians |year=1997 |publisher=The University of Chicago Press |location=Chicago |isbn=0-226-15555-2 |page=118 |chapter=Bureaucrats}}</ref>
* [[Weighing scale]] — The oldest attested evidence for the existence of weighing scales dates to the [[Fourth Dynasty of Egypt]], with [[Deben (unit)]] balance weights, from the reign of [[Sneferu]] (c. 2600 BC) excavated, though earlier usage has been proposed.<ref>{{cite book |last=Rahmstorf |first=Lorenz |chapter=In Search of the Earliest Balance Weights, Scales and Weighing Systems from the East Mediterranean, the Near and Middle East |chapter-url=https://www.academia.edu/1864503 |editor-last1=Alberti |editor-first1=Maria Emanuela |editor-last2=Ascalone |editor-first2=Enrico |editor-last3=Peyronel |editor-first3=Luca |title=Weights in Context: Bronze Age Weighing Systems of Eastern Mediterranean: Chronology, Typology, Material and Archaeological Contexts: Proceedings of the International Colloquium, Roma 22nd-24th November 2004 |date=2006 |publisher=Istituto italiano di numismatica |isbn=978-88-85914-44-5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=M-naAAAAMAAJ |language=en}}</ref>
* [[Wig]] — In Egyptian society men and women commonly had clean shaven or close cropped hair and often wore wigs.<ref name="Wallenfels 2000">{{cite book |title= The Ancient Near East: An Encyclopedia for Students, Volume 2 |last= Wallenfels |first= Ronald |year= 2000 |publisher= Scribner |isbn=9780684805948 |page=145 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | doi = 10.11141/ia.42.6.3 | issue=42 | title=An Ancient Egyptian Wig: Construction and Reconstruction | year=2016 | journal=Internet Archaeology | last1 = Fletcher | first1 = Joann | last2 = Salamone | first2 = Filippo| doi-access = free }}</ref> The [[ancient Egypt]]ians created the wig to shield shaved, hairless heads from the sun. They also wore the wigs on top of their hair using [[beeswax]] and resin to keep the wigs in place. Wealthy Egyptians would wear elaborate wigs and scented cones of animal fat on top of their wigs.<ref name="Wallenfels 2000"/>
* [[Ramp]]s and [[Inclined plane]]s — The [[Egyptian pyramids]] were constructed using inclined planes,<ref name="Thomas">{{cite web
  | last = Thomas
  | first = Burke
  | title = Transport and the Inclined Plane
  | work = Construction of the Giza Pyramids
  | publisher = world-mysteries.com
  | year = 2005
  | url = http://www.world-mysteries.com/gw_tb_gp.htm
  | access-date = 10 March 2012
  | archive-date = 13 March 2012
  | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20120313035958/http://www.world-mysteries.com/gw_tb_gp.htm
  
  }}</ref><ref name="Isler">{{cite book
  | last = Isler
  | first = Martin 
  | title = Sticks, stones, and shadows: building the Egyptian pyramids
  | publisher = University of Oklahoma Press
  | year = 2001
  | location = USA
  | pages = [https://archive.org/details/sticksstonesshad00mart/page/211 211]–216
  | url = https://archive.org/details/sticksstonesshad00mart
  | url-access = registration
  | isbn = 978-0-8061-3342-3}}</ref><ref name="SpragueDeCamp">{{cite book
  | last =  Sprague de Camp
  | first = L.
  | title = The Ancient Engineers
  | publisher = Barnes & Noble
  | year = 1990
  | location = USA
  | page = 43
  | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=cauMt9vJLs0C&q=%22sprague+de+camp%22+ancient+engineers
  | isbn = 978-0-88029-456-0}}</ref>

[[File:Clevelandart 1964.91.jpg|thumb|False door of [[Nykara]], c. 2408 BC, painted limestone, 168 x 111.5&nbsp;×&nbsp;6 cm, [[Cleveland Museum of Art]]]]
* [[Parchment]] — Writing on prepared animal skins had a long history, however. [[David Diringer]] noted that "the first mention of Egyptian documents written on leather goes back to the [[Fourth Dynasty of Egypt|Fourth Dynasty]] (c. 2550–2450 BC), but the earliest of such documents extant are: a fragmentary roll of leather of the [[Sixth Dynasty of Egypt|Sixth Dynasty]] (c. 24th century BC), unrolled by Dr. H. Ibscher, and preserved in the [[Cairo Museum]]; a roll of the [[Twelfth Dynasty of Egypt|Twelfth Dynasty]] (c. 1990–1777 BC) now in Berlin; the mathematical text now in the [[British Museum]] (MS. 10250); and a document of the reign of [[Ramses II]] (early thirteenth century BC)."<ref>[[David Diringer]], ''The Book before Printing: Ancient, Medieval and Oriental'', Dover Publications, New York 1982, p. 172.</ref>
* [[Door]]s and [[Pin tumbler lock|Door Locks]] — <ref>{{cite web|url=https://science.howstuffworks.com/innovation/inventions/5-amazing-ancient-egyptian-inventions9.htm|title=10 Amazing Ancient Egyptian Inventions|date=12 January 2011}}</ref> – The earliest in records are those represented in the paintings of some ancient Egyptian tombs, in which they are shown as single or double doors, each in a single piece of wood. Doors were once believed to be the literal doorway to the afterlife, and some doors leading to important places included designs of the afterlife. Basic principles of the [[Pin tumbler lock]] may date as far back as 2000 BC in [[Egypt]]; the lock consisted of a [[wood]]en post affixed to the door, and a horizontal bolt that slid into the post. The bolt had vertical openings into which a set of pins fitted. These could be lifted, using a key, to a sufficient height to allow the bolt to move and unlock the door.<ref>{{cite book|title=Locksmithing: From Apprentice to Master|date=22 October 1994|publisher=McGraw-Hill Professional|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3cZ0JrNCTVUC&q=Pin-tumbler+lock+Egyptians&pg=PA79|page=79|isbn=9780070516458}}</ref> This wooden lock was one of Egypt's major developments in domestic architecture during classical times.
* [[Comb]]s<ref name="Discovering Egypt">{{cite web|url=https://discoveringegypt.com/ancient-egyptian-inventions/#:~:text=Therefore%2C%20the%20Egyptians%20had%20to,goes%20with%20large%20organised%20societies.|title=Ancient Egyptian Inventions}}</ref>
* [[Bellows]] — Bellows were used as early as the [[New Kingdom of Egypt|New Kingdom]].<ref>{{cite book|title=The Manners and Customs of the Ancient Egyptians / Volume 3.|author=John Gardiner Wilkinson|year=1837|page=338|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4F46AAAAcAAJ&q=bellows+invention+in+egypt&pg=PA338}}</ref>
* [[Hinge]] — Ancient remains of stone, marble, wood, and bronze hinges have been found. Some date back to at least [[Ancient Egypt]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Door Hinges in Antiquity (Smith's Dictionary, 1875)|url=https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/secondary/SMIGRA*/Cardo.html|access-date=April 19, 2022}}</ref>
* [[Saw]] — In ancient Egypt, open (unframed) saws made of [[copper]] are documented as early as the [[Early Dynastic Period of Egypt|Early Dynastic Period]], circa 3,100–2,686 BC.<ref>Walter B. Emery ''Excavations at Saqqara, The Tomb of Hemaka and Hor-Aha'', Cairo, Government Press, Bulâq, 1938 (2 vols)</ref>{{page needed|date=March 2011}} Many copper saws were found in tomb No. 3471 dating to the reign of [[Djer]] in the 31st century BC.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.touregypt.net/featurestories/firstdynastysaqqara.htm |title=The 1st Dynasty Tombs of Saqqara in Egypt |access-date=2016-01-15 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160225093028/http://www.touregypt.net/featurestories/firstdynastysaqqara.htm |archive-date=2016-02-25 }} The 1st Dynasty Tombs of Saqqara in Egypt by John Watson</ref> Saws have been used for cutting a variety of materials, including humans ([[death by sawing]]). Models of saws have been found in many contexts throughout Egyptian history. Particularly useful are tomb wall illustrations of carpenters at work that show sizes and the use of different types. Egyptian saws were at first serrated, hardened copper which cut on both pull and push strokes. As the saw developed, teeth were raked to cut only on the pull stroke and [[Saw set|set]] with the teeth projecting only on one side, rather than in the modern fashion with an alternating set. Saws were also made of bronze and later iron.
* [[Air conditioning]] — The basic concept behind air conditioning is said to have been applied in ancient Egypt, where reeds were hung in windows and were moistened with trickling water. The evaporation of water cooled the air blowing through the window. This process also made the air more humid, which can be beneficial in a dry desert climate.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.zmescience.com/science/inventor-air-conditioning/|title=Who invented air conditioning|date=26 January 2017}}</ref>
* [[Hand fan]] — Hand fans had been used in Egypt as early as 4,000 years ago. Hand fans have been found in King [[Tutankhamun|Tut]]'s tomb.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://web.ics.purdue.edu/~salvo/@SEA/exhibit/history.asp|title=A Brief History of Hand Fan}}</ref>
* [[Pen]]s and [[Reed pen]]s — Ancient Egyptians had developed writing on papyrus scrolls when scribes used thin reed brushes or [[reed pen]]s from the ''[[Juncus maritimus]]'' or sea rush.<ref>[http://www.lib.umich.edu/pap/exhibits/writing/reed_pen.html Egyptian reed pen] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070221023715/http://www.lib.umich.edu/pap/exhibits/writing/reed_pen.html |date=2007-02-21 |df=dmy-all}} Retrieved 16 March 2007.</ref> In his book ''A History of Writing'', Steven Roger Fischer suggests that on the basis of finds at [[Saqqara]], the reed pen might well have been used for writing on parchment as long ago as the First Dynasty or about 3000 BC.
* [[Spoon]] — Preserved examples of various forms of spoons used by the ancient Egyptians include those composed of [[ivory]], [[flint]], [[slate]] and wood; many of them carved with religious symbols.<ref name="enc">{{cite EB1911 |wstitle=Spoon |volume=25 |page=733}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.thrillist.com/eat/nation/history-of-chopsticks-forks-spoons-and-sporks-who-invented-the-spoon-who-invented-the-fork|title=History of Chopsticks, Forks, Spoon and Sporks – Who Invented The Spoon? – Who Invented The Forks?|date=8 January 2016 }}</ref>
* [[Scissor]]s — <ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.wonderopolis.org/wonder/who-invented-scissors|title=Who Invented The Scissors|date=16 December 2019 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.thoughtco.com/who-invented-scissors-4070946|title=The History of Scissors}}</ref>
* [[Set square]] — Found the [[TT8|tomb]] of architect Kha.<ref name="themarysue.com">{{cite web|url=https://www.themarysue.com/worlds-first-protractor/|title=Egyptians May Have Invented The World's First Protractor|date=29 July 2011}}</ref>
* [[Protractors]] — Found the [[TT8|tomb]] of architect Kha.<ref name="themarysue.com"/>
* Copper [[Pipe (fluid conveyance)|Pipe]]s — The c.2400 BCE, [[Pyramid of Sahure#Drainage system|Pyramid of Sahure]], and adjoining temple complex at [[Abusir]], was discovered to have a network of copper drainage pipes.<ref>{{cite book|last=Bunson|first=Margaret|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-6EJ0G-4jyoC&q=Abusir+copper+pipe+ancient+egypt&pg=PA6|title=Encyclopedia of Ancient Egypt|date=2014-05-14 |publisher=Infobase Publishing|isbn=978-1-4381-0997-8|page=6|language=en}}</ref>
* [[Archimedes' screw]] — Although commonly attributed to [[Archimedes]], the device had been used in [[Ancient Egypt]] long before his time.<ref>{{cite book |title=New Standard Encyclopedia |date=1978 |publisher=Standard Educational Corp. |isbn=9780873921831 |page=A-257 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=47zWGRWx_y0C&q=%22Archimedes%27+screw%22+%22ancient+egypt%22 |access-date=30 April 2020 |quote=The Archimedes' screw was developed in ancient Egypt and was subsequently used by Archimedes (287–212 b.c.)}}</ref> The first records of a water screw, or screw pump, date back to [[Ancient Egypt]] before the 3rd century BC.<ref name="Screw">{{cite encyclopedia |title=Screw |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica online |publisher=The Encyclopaedia Britannica Co. |year=2011 |url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/529876/screw |access-date=2011-03-24 }}</ref> The Egyptian screw, used to lift water from the [[Nile]], was composed of tubes wound round a cylinder; as the entire unit rotates, water is lifted within the spiral tube to the higher elevation. A later screw pump design from Egypt had a spiral groove cut on the outside of a solid wooden cylinder and then the cylinder was covered by boards or sheets of metal closely covering the surfaces between the grooves.
* [[Screw pump]] — The screw pump is the oldest positive displacement pump.<ref>{{cite book |last=Stewart |first=Bobby Alton |author2=Terry A. Howell |title=Encyclopedia of water science |publisher=CRC Press |year=2003 |location=USA |page=759 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5cP-81xDWuwC&pg=PA759 |isbn=0-8247-0948-9}}</ref> The first records of a water screw, or screw pump, dates back to [[Ancient Egypt]] before the 3rd century BC.<ref name="Screw"/> The Egyptian screw, used to lift water from the [[Nile]], was composed of tubes wound round a cylinder; as the entire unit rotates, water is lifted within the spiral tube to the higher elevation. A later screw pump design from Egypt had a spiral groove cut on the outside of a solid wooden cylinder and then the cylinder was covered by boards or sheets of metal closely covering the surfaces between the grooves.

==== Furniture ====
Furniture became common first in Ancient Egypt during the [[Naqada culture]].<ref>{{cite book|title=Egyptian Art in the Age of the Pyramids|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mxAZpKoo-YwC&q=furniture|author=Metropolitan Museum of Art Staff|publisher=Metropolitan Museum of Art|page=117|date=1999|isbn=9780870999079}}</ref> During that period a wide variety of furniture pieces were invented and used.

* [[Table (furniture)|Table]]s — Some very early tables were made and used by the ancient Egyptians<ref name=RD>{{cite web | url=https://study.com/academy/lesson/ancient-egyptian-furniture-history-design.html | title=Ancient Egyptian Furniture: History & Design - Video & Lesson Transcript }}</ref> around 2500 BC, using wood and [[alabaster]].<ref>{{cite book|date=27 November 2009|title=Extraordinary Origins of Everyday Things|publisher=Reader's Digest|page=13|isbn=978-0276445699}}</ref> They were often little more than stone platforms used to keep objects off the floor, though a few examples of wooden tables have been found in tombs. Food and drinks were usually put on large plates deposed on a pedestal for eating. The Egyptians made use of various small tables and elevated playing boards.
* [[Chair]]s — Chairs were in existence since at least the [[Early Dynastic Period of Egypt]] (c. 3100 BC). They were covered with cloth or leather, were made of carved wood, and were much lower than today's chairs – chair seats were sometimes only {{convert|10|in|cm}} high.<ref name="reshafim">{{cite web |url=http://www.reshafim.org.il/ad/egypt/timelines/topics/furniture.htm |title=Furniture |publisher=Ancient Egyptian Furniture |access-date=13 May 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081021084705/http://www.reshafim.org.il/ad/egypt/timelines/topics/furniture.htm |archive-date=21 October 2008 }}</ref>
* [[camp bed]] — It is believed that [[Tutankhamun|King Tut]], who reigned in [[Egypt]] from approximately 1332 to 1323 BC, may have had the first camping bed. When Tutankhamun's [[tomb]] was opened in [[1922]] a room full of furniture was found to contain a three-section camping bed that folded up into a Z shape.Though the frail young king, who had a [[clubfoot]], may never have taken part in long-distance [[exploration]]s, the elaborate folding bed suggests he had an interest in camping and [[hunting]].<ref>[https://www.livescience.com/59999-king-tut-camping-bed-ancient-marvel.html King Tut's camp bed]</ref>
* [[Chest (furniture)]] — The [[Ancient Egypt]]ians created the first known chests, using wood or woven reeds, circa 3000 BC.<ref>{{Cite book|date=27 November 2009|title=Extraordinary Origins of Everyday Things|publisher=Reader's Digest|page=12|isbn=978-0276445699}}</ref>

=== Arts and Architecture ===

==== Architecture ====

* [[Mastaba]] — Was a predecessor to the Egyptian pyramid. Kings of the [[Early Dynastic Period (Egypt)|Early Dynastic Period]] were buried there.
[[File:Mammisi Philae2.JPG|thumb|Columns with [[Hathor]]ic capitals]]

* [[Column]] — In [[ancient Egyptian architecture]] as early as 2600 BC, the architect [[Imhotep]] made use of stone columns whose surface was carved to reflect the organic form of bundled reeds, like [[papyrus]], [[Nymphaea|lotus]] and [[Palm tree|palm]]. In later Egyptian architecture faceted cylinders were also common. Their form is thought to derive from archaic reed-built shrines. Carved from stone, the columns were highly decorated with carved and painted [[Egyptian hieroglyphs|hieroglyphs]], texts, ritual imagery and natural motifs. Egyptian columns are famously present in the [[Great Hypostyle Hall]] of Karnak (circa 1224 BC), where 134 columns are lined up in sixteen rows, with some columns reaching heights of 24 metres.

[[File:Pylons and obelisk Luxor temple.JPG|thumb|[[Pylon (architecture)|Pylon]] of the Temple of Luxor with the remaining obelisk (of two) in front (the second is in the Place de la Concorde in Paris).]]
* [[Hypostyle]] Architecture
* [[Capital (architecture)|Capital]] — The two earliest [[Ancient Egypt|Egyptian]] capitals of importance are those based on the [[Egyptian lotus|lotus]] and [[papyrus]] plants.
* [[Pylon (architecture)|Pylon]] — Pylons were often decorated with scenes emphasizing a king's authority since it was the public face of a cult building.<ref name="Wilkinson_195">Toby Wilkinson, The Thames and Hudson Dictionary of Ancient Egypt, Thames & Hudson, 2005. p.195</ref> On the first pylon of the temple of [[Isis]] at [[Philae]], the [[pharaoh]] is shown slaying his enemies while [[Isis]], [[Horus]] and [[Hathor]] look on. Other examples of pylons can be seen in [[Karnak]], [[Luxor Temple|Luxor]], and [[Edfu]].
* [[Obelisk]] — The earliest [[temple]] obelisk still in its original position is the {{convert|20.7|m|ft|adj=on|order=flip}} {{convert|120|MT|ST|adj=on|lk=on}}<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/egypt/raising/cairo.html|title=NOVA Online &#124; Mysteries of the Nile &#124; A World of Obelisks: Cairo |publisher=Pbs.org |access-date=14 June 2013}}</ref> red granite Obelisk of [[Senusret I]] of the [[Twelfth dynasty of Egypt|XIIth]] [[List of Egyptian dynasties|Dynasty]] at [[El Matareya, Cairo|Al-Matariyyah]] in [[Heliopolis (Cairo suburb)|modern Heliopolis]].<ref>{{cite EB1911 |wstitle=Obelisk |volume=19 |page=945 |first=Francis Llewellyn |last=Griffith}}</ref>

[[File:Illustrations of various examples of ancient Egyptian cornices.jpg|thumb| Illustrations of various examples of ancient Egyptian [[cornice]]s, all of them having cavettos]]
* [[Garden]]s — Gardens appeared in Egypt during the [[Old Kingdom of Egypt|Old Kingdom]]. There were many types of gardens in Ancient Egypt such as: [[pleasure gardens]], Palace gardens, Temple gardens and Funerary gardens.<ref>Descroches-Noblecourt, L'Art Egyptien, pg. 113</ref>
* [[Windcatcher]] — Windcatchers were used in traditional [[ancient Egyptian architecture]] from the very early historical times,<ref>{{Cite web |title=Air-conditioning avoidance |url=http://www.inive.org/members_area/medias/pdf/Inive%5Cpalenc%5C2005%5CRoaf.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071023174149/http://www.inive.org/members_area/medias/pdf/Inive%5Cpalenc%5C2005%5CRoaf.pdf |archive-date=October 23, 2007 }}</ref> and only started to fall out of use in the mid-1900s C.E..
* [[Cavetto]] — [[Ancient Egyptian architecture]] made special use of large cavetto mouldings as a [[cornice]], with only a short fillet (plain vertical face) above, and a [[Molding (decorative)#Types|torus]] moulding (convex semi-circle) below. This cavetto cornice is sometimes also known as an "Egyptian cornice", "hollow and roll" or "gorge cornice", and has been suggested to be a reminiscence in stone architecture of the primitive use of bound bunches of reeds as supports for buildings, the weight of the roof bending their tops out.<ref>Brier, Bob, Hobbs, A. Hoyt, ''Daily Life of the Ancient Egyptians'', p. 200, 2008, Greenwood Publishing Group, {{ISBN|0313353069}}, 9780313353062, [https://books.google.com/books?id=h1LsCh68d7kC&pg=PA200 google books]</ref>
* [[Corbel arch]] — Corbelling is a technique first applied by the ancient Egyptians and [[Chaldea]]ns.<ref name=Nakassis>{{Cite journal |last= Nakassis |first= Athanassios |title= The Bridges of Ancient Eleutherna |journal= The Annual of the British School at Athens |volume= 95 |year= 2000 |page=364 |doi= 10.1017/s006824540000472x |jstor= 30103440 |s2cid= 112648240 }}</ref> During the [[Fourth dynasty of Egypt|Fourth Dynasty]] reign of [[Pharaoh]] [[Sneferu]] (c. 2600 BC), the [[Ancient Egypt]]ian [[pyramid]]s used corbel vaults in some of their chambers.

==== Crafts ====
* [[Wood carving]] and Wooden statues — The extreme dryness of the climate of Egypt accounts for the existence of a number of woodcarvings from this remote period. Some wood panels from the tomb of Hosul Egypt, at [[Saqqara]] are of the [[Third Dynasty of Egypt|Third Dynasty]]. The carving consists of [[Egyptian hieroglyphs]] and figures in low relief, and the style is extremely delicate and fine. A stool shown on one of the panels has the legs shaped like the fore and hind limbs of an animal, a form common in Egypt for thousands of years.
* Hollow Glass Production and [[List of glassware|Glassware]] — Egypt and Mesopotamia were the first civilizations to produce glass works(3,500 BC.). The oldest specimens of glass are from Egypt and date back to 2000 B.C. In 1500BC the industry was well established in Egypt.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.historyofglass.com/glass-invention/who-invented-glass/.|title=About Glass Inventors – Who Invented Glass|website=www.historyofglass.com|access-date=26 March 2018}}</ref>
* [[Egyptian faience]]
* [[Cosmetic palette]]

[[File:Benu.jpg|thumb|Painting on papyrus]]
* [[Tapestry]] — The earliest known tapestry weave pieces using [[linen]] were found in the tombs of both [[Thutmose IV]] (d. 1391 or 1388 BC) and [[Tutankhamen]] (c. 1323 BC), the latter a glove and a robe.<ref>Britannica, [https://www.britannica.com/art/tapestry/Periods-and-centres-of-activity#ref73786 "Tapestry"]</ref>
* [[Watercolor paper]] — Painting on [[Papyrus]] was invented in Ancient Egypt long before the invention of Paper.

[[File:Tutankhamun scarab1.jpg|thumb|Hieroglyphs: [[ankh]], basket, [[Eye of Horus]], [[sun (hieroglyph)|Sun Disk]]-(Gard. N5)]]
* [[Pigment | Synthetic pigment]] — The first known synthetic pigment was [[Egyptian blue]], which is first attested on an alabaster bowl in Egypt dated to [[Naqada III]] (''circa'' 3250 BC).<ref>Lorelei H. Corcoran, "The Color Blue as an 'Animator' in Ancient Egyptian Art", in Rachael B.Goldman, (ed.), ''Essays in Global Color History: Interpreting the Ancient Spectrum'' (New Jersey: Gorgias Press, 2016), pp. 59–82.</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Rossotti |first=Hazel |title=Colour: Why the World Isn't Grey |year=1983 |publisher=Princeton University Press |location=Princeton, NJ |isbn=0-691-02386-7 |url=https://archive.org/details/colour00ross }}</ref> Egyptian blue (blue frit), calcium copper silicate CaCuSi<sub>4</sub>O<sub>10</sub>, made by heating a mixture of [[quartz]] sand, [[limestone|lime]], a [[Ceramic flux|flux]] and a [[copper]] source, such as [[malachite]].<ref>{{cite journal |last=Berke |first=Heinz |title=The invention of blue and purple pigments in ancient times |journal=Chemical Society Reviews |volume=36 |pages=15–30 |date=2007 |issue=1 |doi= 10.1039/b606268g |pmid=17173142 |url= https://pubs.rsc.org/en/content/articlelanding/2007/cs/b606268g}}</ref> Already invented in the [[Predynastic Period of Egypt]], its use became widespread by the [[4th Dynasty]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Hatton |first1=G.D. |last2=Shortland |first2=A.J. |last3=Tite |first3=M.S. |title=The production technology of Egyptian blue and green frits from second millenium BC Egypt and Mesopotamia |journal=Journal of Archaeological Science |volume=35 |pages=1591–1604 |date=2008 |issue=6 |doi= 10.1016/j.jas.2007.11.008 |bibcode=2008JArSc..35.1591H |url= https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0305440307002166}}</ref> It was the blue pigment par excellence of [[Roman antiquity]]; its art technological traces vanished in the course of the [[Middle Ages]] until its rediscovery in the context of the [[Egyptian campaign]] and the excavations in [[Pompeii]] and [[Herculaneum]].<ref name="NaturePortfolio">{{cite journal |last1=Dariz |first1=Petra |last2=Schmid |first2=Thomas |title=Trace compounds in Early Medieval Egyptian blue carry information on provenance, manufacture, application, and ageing |journal=Scientific Reports |volume=11 |number=11296 |date=2021 |page=11296 |doi= 10.1038/s41598-021-90759-6 |pmid=34050218 |pmc=8163881 |bibcode=2021NatSR..1111296D }}</ref>

==== Music and Dance ====
[[File:Abu Simbel Nefartari Sistrum-2.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Nefertari]], wife of [[Ramesses II]], holding a sistrum]]
[[File:Trompette d'argent et sa sourdine en bois du tombeau de Toutânkhamon 2.jpg|thumb|Silver and gold plated trumpet and its wooden mute from the [[KV62|tomb of Tutankhamun]] (1326–1336 BC)]]
* [[Sistrum]] — The sistrum was a sacred instrument in ancient Egypt. Perhaps originating in the worship of [[Bastet]], it was used in dances and religious ceremonies, particularly in the worship of the goddess [[Hathor]], with the U-shape of the sistrum's handle and frame seen as resembling the face and horns of the cow goddess.<ref>{{harvp|Hart|2005|p=65}}</ref>
* [[Melisma]] — According to Demetrius of Falorene (3rd century A.D), The Egyptian priests used to praise the gods by singing 7 vowels successively producing sweet sounds. This is the first mention of the melisma which is used in many of the [[Coptic language|Coptic]] [[hymns]] today.<ref name="TMOCAH5">{{cite book|title=Russian Orthodox Encyclopedia vol.37 – The Musicality of Coptic Hymns|author=George Kyrillos|page= 5|url=http://www.davidensemble.com/english/book/MusicalityOfCopticHymnsEnglish.pdf}}</ref>
* [[rap|Syllabtic music style]] — The Syllabtic music style had been used for 2000 years in the coptic church "Tasbe7a".<ref name="TMOCAH13">{{cite book|title=Russian Orthodox Encyclopedia vol.37 – The Musicality of Coptic Hymns|author=George Kyrillos|page= 13|url=http://www.davidensemble.com/english/book/MusicalityOfCopticHymnsEnglish.pdf}}</ref>

==== Literature ====

* Written records — The Ancient Egyptian sentence found in the tomb of [[Seth-Peribsen]] is the world's oldest known sentence<ref name="James Egyptian">{{cite book |title=The Ancient Egyptian Language |surname=Allen |given=James P. |author-link=James Peter Allen |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2003 |isbn=978-1-107-66467-8 |page=2 }}</ref>

[[File:Funerary relief of Amenemhet I from El-Lisht by John Campana.jpg|thumb|alt=Light gray stone surface with carved and painted images of two woman, a falcon-headed god, a black-haired man with a long goatee, a jackal-headed god, and Egyptian hieroglyphs inscribed along the top|A raised-relief depiction of [[Amenemhat I]] accompanied by deities; the death of Amenemhat I is reported by his son [[Senusret I]] in the ''Story of Sinuhe''.]]
* [[Short story]] — short story started in Ancient Egypt around 2000 BC. Among the oldest known stories the "[[Story of Sinuhe]]" and the "[[Tale of the Shipwrecked Sailor]]".<ref>{{cite news|url= https://www.britannica.com/art/short-story/History |title=Britannica: short story|newspaper=Encyclopedia Britannica }}</ref>
* [[Epistle]] — The ancient Egyptians wrote epistles, most often for [[pedagogy|pedagogical]] reasons. [[Egyptologist]] Edward Wente (1990) speculates that the [[Fifth Dynasty of Egypt|Fifth Dynasty]] Pharaoh [[Djedkare Isesi]] (in his many letters sent to his [[Vizier (Ancient Egypt)|viziers]]) was a pioneer in the epistolary genre.<ref name=wente>{{cite book|title=Letters from Ancient Egypt: Society of Biblical Literature Writing from the Ancient World Series Volume 1|year=1990|publisher=Scholars Press|location=Atlanta, GA|isbn=978-1555404734|author=Edward F. Wente|hdl=2027/heb.02262.0001.001|translator = Edmund S. Meltzer}}</ref>
* [[Sebayt]] and [[Wisdom literature]] — [[The Maxims of Ptahhotep]] are among the oldest pieces of [[wisdom literature]]. It was compiled during the 24th century BC.<ref>{{Cite journal |doi = 10.2307/3209606|jstor = 3209606|title = A Modern Look at Ancient Wisdom: The Instruction of Ptahhotep Revisited|year = 1981|last1 = Fontaine|first1 = Carole R.|journal = The Biblical Archaeologist|volume = 44|issue = 3|pages = 155–160|s2cid = 59261427}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url= https://www.britannica.com/topic/biblical-literature/Proverbs#ref597827 |title=Britannica: Proverbs}}</ref>
* [[Satire]] — One of the earliest examples of what we might call satire, [[The Satire of the Trades]],<ref>{{Citation | first = M | last = Lichtheim | title = Ancient Egyptian Literature | volume = I | year = 1973 | pages = 184–93}}</ref> is in Egyptian writing from the beginning of the 2nd millennium BC. The text's apparent readers are students, tired of studying. It argues that their lot as scribes is not only useful, but far superior to that of the ordinary man. Scholars such as Helck<ref>{{Citation | first = W | last = Helck | title = Die Lehre des DwA-xtjj | publisher = Wiesbaden | year = 1970}}</ref> think that the context was meant to be serious. The [[Papyrus Anastasi I]]<ref>{{Citation | first = Alan H | last = Gardiner | title = Egyptian Hieratic Texts | series= I: Literary Texts of the New Kingdom | volume = I | place = Leipzig | year = 1911 |publisher=J. C. Hinrichs’sche Buchhandlung}}</ref> (late 2nd millennium BC) contains a satirical letter which first praises the virtues of its recipient, but then mocks the reader's meagre knowledge and achievements.

=== Sports ===

[[File:1895 - Skittles bowling game - Naqada, Egypt - 1895 archeologist drawing.jpg|thumb| Archeologist's drawing of items found in 1895 in an ancient tomb in Naqada, Egypt, thought to resemble the more modern game of [[Skittles (sport)|skittles]]. The archeologist conjectured as to the particular arrangement of the items found.<ref name=NaquadaBallas_1896/>]]
* [[Bowling]] — The earliest known forms of bowling date back to [[ancient Egypt]],<ref name="bowlingmuseum1">{{cite web|url=http://helpwithbowling.com/history-origins-of-bowling.php|title=Bowling History – Origin of Bowling|access-date=24 January 2016}}</ref> with wall drawings depicting bowling being found in a royal Egyptian tomb dated to 5200 B.C.<ref name=UPI_19840602>{{cite news |last1=Luna |first1=Richard |title=Bruce Pluckhahn says there's a little bit of bowling... |url=https://www.upi.com/Archives/1984/06/02/Bruce-Pluckhahn-says-theres-a-little-bit-of-bowling/7180454996800/ |work=United Press International |date=2 June 1984 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190417170158/https://www.upi.com/Archives/1984/06/02/Bruce-Pluckhahn-says-theres-a-little-bit-of-bowling/7180454996800/ |archive-date=17 April 2019 |url-status=live}} Statement by Bowling Museum curator Bruce Pluckhahn.</ref> and miniature pins and balls in an Egyptian child's grave about 5200 B.C.<ref name=SI_19860407>{{cite magazine |last1=Kaplan |first1=Jim |title=Here's a Memory Lane for Bowling Fanatics Who Have Some Spare Time |url=https://www.si.com/vault/1986/04/07/643890/heres-a-memory-lane-for-bowling-fanatics-who-have-some-spare-time |magazine=Sports Illustrated |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190508151614/https://www.si.com/vault/1986/04/07/643890/heres-a-memory-lane-for-bowling-fanatics-who-have-some-spare-time |archive-date=8 May 2019 |date=7 April 1986 |url-status=live}}</ref> Remnants of bowling balls were found among artifacts in ancient Egypt going back to the [[Naqada III|Egyptian protodynastic period]] in 3200 BC.<ref name=Pretsell>{{cite book |last=Pretsell|first=James M. |title=The Game of Bowls Past and Present |year=1908 |publisher=Oliver & Boyd |page=1}}</ref> What is thought to be a child's game involving [[Porphyry (geology)|porphyry]] (stone) balls, a miniature [[trilithon]], and nine [[breccia]]-veined [[alabaster]] vase-shaped figures—thought to resemble the more modern game of [[Skittles (sport)|skittles]]—was found in [[Naqada]], Egypt in 1895.<ref name=NaquadaBallas_1896>{{cite book |last1=Petrie |first1=William Matthew |author-link=Flinders Petrie |last2=Quibell |first2=James Edward |author-link2=James Quibell |title=Naqada and Ballas, 1895 |date=1896 |publisher=B. Quaritch |location=London |page=[https://archive.org/details/cu31924028748261/page/n48 35] |url=https://archive.org/details/cu31924028748261 |chapter=VII. Games}} Cornell University Library. ([https://archive.org/details/cu31924028748261/page/n107 archeologist's drawing])</ref>
* [[Hockey]] — Drawings on tombs at Beni Hassan in Menia Governorate show players holding bats made of long palm-tree branches, with a bent end similar to that of the hockey bat. The hockey ball was made of compressed papyrus fibers covered with two pieces of leather in the shape of a semicircle.<ref name="Ancient Egyptian Sport-SIS">{{cite web|url=https://www.sis.gov.eg/section/722/733?lang=en-us#:~:text=Many%20of%20today's%20sports%20were,various%20kinds%20of%20ball%20games.|title=Ancient Egyptian Sport – SIS}}</ref><ref name="Egyptian Olympic Committee">{{cite web|url=http://www.egyptianolympic.org/Olympism.html|title=Egyptian Olympic Committee}}</ref>
* [[Handball]] — Drawings of this sport are found on the Saqqara tombs, five thousand years old. The ball was made of leather and stuffed with plant fibers or hay, or made of papyrus plants in order to be light and more durable. It was seldom used for more than one match.<ref name="Ancient Egyptian Sport-SIS" />
* [[Gymnastics]] — Ancient Egyptians were the first to play Gymnastics. They even developed three types of Gymnastics which are: [[Rhythmic Gymnastics]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.touregypt.net/historicalessays/ancsportsn1.htm|title=Ancient Egyptian Sports: Rhythmic Gymnastics}}</ref> Gymnastics: Consecutive Vault<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.touregypt.net/historicalessays/ancsportsd1.htm|title=Ancient Egyptian Sports: Consecutive Vault}}</ref> and [[Floor (gymnastics)|floor gymnastics]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.touregypt.net/historicalessays/ancsportsc1.htm|title=Ancient Egyptian Sports: Gymnastics}}</ref>
* [[Olympic weightlifting|Weightlifting]] — Weightlifting was first recorded in ancient Egypt. One method of weightlifting was lifting a heavy sack of sand with one hand and keep it high in a vertical position. The player had to hold that sack of sand for some time and stay in the same position. This rule is still applied in the modern weightlifting.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.touregypt.net/historicalessays/ancsportsh1.htm|title=Ancient Egyptian Sports: Weightlifting}}</ref><ref name="Egyptian Olympic Committee" />
* [[High jump]]<ref name="Egyptian Olympic Committee" />
* [[Tug of War]] — This sport was practiced in the country side.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.touregypt.net/historicalessays/ancsportsr1.htm|title=Ancient Egyptian Sports: Tug of War}}</ref><ref name="Egyptian Olympic Committee" />
* Tug of Hoop<ref name="Egyptian Olympic Committee" /><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.touregypt.net/historicalessays/ancsportso1.htm|title=Ancient Egyptian Sports: Tug of Hoop}}</ref>
* Equilibrium (sport)<ref name="Egyptian Olympic Committee" /><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.touregypt.net/historicalessays/ancsportsq1.htm|title=Ancient Egyptian Sports: Equilibrium}}</ref>

[[File:Saho Ra Tahtib - Abou Sir.jpg|right|thumbnail|Engravings at the Abusir necropolis showing scenes of archery, wrestling, and stick fighting]]
* [[Fencing]] — The first historical evidence from archaeology of a fencing contest was found on the wall of a [[Medinet Habu (temple)|temple within Egypt]] built at a time dated to approximately [[Rameses III|1190 B.C.]]<ref>Maxwell R. Garret, Emmanuil G. Kaidanov, Gil A. Pezza – [https://books.google.com/books?id=vScblzdeIiQC – Foil, Saber, and Épée Fencing: Skills, Safety, Operations, and Responsibilities] [[Penn State Press]] 1994 (revised, annotated), 227 pages, {{ISBN|0271010193}} [Retrieved 2015-07-12]</ref>
* [[Tahtib]] — The oldest traces of tahtib were found on engravings from the archaeological site of [[Abusir]], an extensive necropolis of the [[Old Kingdom of Egypt|Old Kingdom]] period, located in the south-western suburbs of [[Cairo]]. On some of the reliefs of the Pyramid of Sahure (V dynasty, c. 2500 BC);<ref>T. El Awady, ibid, VI.6.2, p. 208-210 ; D. Farout, ''Tahtib l'art de l'accomplissement et du bâton'', ةgypte Afrique & Orient n° 60 (janvier 2011), p. 67-69.</ref> the images and explanatory captions are particularly precise and accurate in their depiction of what seems to be military training using sticks. Tahtib, with archery and wrestling, was then among the three disciplines of warfare taught to soldiers.

=== Cuisine ===

* [[Frying]] — Frying is believed to have first appeared in the ancient Egyptian [[Ancient Egyptian cuisine|kitchen]], during the [[Old Kingdom of Egypt|Old Kingdom]], around 2500 BCE.<ref name='Tannahill'>Tannahill, Reay. (1995). ''Food in History''. Three Rivers Press. p. 75</ref>
* [[Banquet]] — Depictions of [[banquet]]s can be found in paintings from both the [[Old Kingdom]] and [[New Kingdom]]. They usually started sometime in the afternoon. Men and women were separated unless they were married. Seating varied according to [[social status]], with those of the highest status sitting on chairs, those slightly lower sat on stools and those lowest in rank sat on the raw floor. Before the food was served, basins were provided along with aromatics and cones of scented fat were lit to spread pleasant smells or to repel insects, depending on the type.<ref name="autogenerated1">''Encyclopedia of Ancient Egypt''; ''banquets''</ref>
* [[Lettuce]] — Lettuce was first cultivated in ancient Egypt for the production of oil from its seeds. This plant was probably selectively bred by the Egyptians into a plant grown for its edible leaves,<ref name="Katz375">Katz and Weaver, pp. 375–376.</ref> with evidence of its cultivation appearing as early as 2680 BC. Lettuce was considered a sacred plant of the reproduction god [[Min (god)|Min]], and it was carried during his festivals and placed near his images. The plant was thought to help the god "perform the sexual act untiringly."<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Q1LAiPylZm4C&q=lettuce+in+egyptian+ritual&pg=PA95|author=Hart, George|title=The Routledge Dictionary of Egyptian Gods and Goddesses|edition=2nd|publisher=Routledge|year=2005|isbn=1-134-28424-1|page=95}}</ref> Its use in religious ceremonies resulted in the creation of many images in tombs and wall paintings. The cultivated variety appears to have been about {{convert|75|cm|abbr=on}} tall and resembled a large version of the modern [[romaine lettuce]]. These upright lettuces were developed by the Egyptians and passed to the Greeks, who in turn shared them with the Romans.

[[File:Pit from a Balanites tree with a hole caused by a rodent MET 14-7-127-134.jpg|thumb|Fruits of ''Balanites aegyptiaca'' from Saqqara. Mastaba of Perneb, 5th dynasty of Egypt. MET.]]
* [[Foie gras]] and [[force-feeding]] — The technique of gavage dates as far back as 2500 BC, when the ancient Egyptians began keeping birds for food and deliberately fattened the birds through force-feeding.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.reshafim.org.il/ad/egypt/timelines/topics/domesticated_animals.htm|title=Ancient Egypt: Farmed and domesticated animals|access-date=10 April 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171216063505/http://www.reshafim.org.il/ad/egypt/timelines/topics/domesticated_animals.htm|archive-date=16 December 2017}}</ref> Today, France is by far the largest producer and consumer of foie gras, though it is produced and consumed worldwide, particularly in other European nations, the United States, and China.<ref name="npr.org">{{cite web|url=https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=11118706|title=A Global Taste Test of Foie Gras and Truffles|website=[[NPR]]}}</ref>
* [[Hardtack]] and [[Biscuits]] — versions using various grains date back to [[Ancient Rome]], and as far back as Ancient Egypt.<ref>{{cite web |title=Education Resource Portal: Hardtack |url=http://education.mnhs.org/portal/hardtack |website=mnhs.org |date=3 November 2016 |publisher=Minnesota Historical Society |access-date=11 June 2020}}</ref>
* Smy — thickened milk{{efn|"Smy, or thickened milk, both human and animal, is often mentioned in medical prescriptions."<ref name="Darby Ghalioungui Grivetti 1977">{{cite book |last1=Darby |first1=W.J. |last2=Ghalioungui |first2=P. |last3=Grivetti |first3=L. |title=Food: The Gift of Osiris |publisher=Academic Press |issue=v. 2 |year=1977 |isbn=978-0-12-203402-2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XbLgAAAAMAAJ&q=%22smy%22+milk |page=775 |access-date=19 May 2016}}</ref>}} documented as existent in ancient Egypt.
* [[Egyptian cheese]] — Archaeological evidence for making [[Egyptian cheese#Ancient Egypt|cheese in Egypt]] goes back about 5,000 years. In 2018, archeologists from [[Cairo University]] and the [[University of Catania]] reported the discovery of the oldest known cheese from [[Egypt]]. Discovered in the [[Saqqara necropolis]], it is around 3200 years old.<ref>{{cite news|title=Ancient Egypt: Cheese discovered in 3,200-year-old tomb|work=BBC News|date=18 August 2018|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-45233347|access-date=20 August 2018}}</ref> Earlier, remains identified as cheese were found in the funeral meal in an Egyptian tomb dating around 2900 BC.<ref>Walter Bryan Emery: ''A Funerary Repast in an Egyptian Tomb of the Archaic Period''. Nederlands instituut voor het Nabije Oosten, Leiden 1962</ref> Visual evidence of [[Egyptian cheese]]making was found in [[Ancient Egypt|Egyptian]] tomb murals in approximately 2000 BC.<ref>History of Cheese. [http://www.gol27.com/HistoryCheese.html] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170721020249/http://www.gol27.com/HistoryCheese.html|date=21 July 2017}}. Retrieved10 June 2007.</ref>
* [[Baker's yeast|Yeast]] — The earliest definite records of yeast come from Ancient Egypt.<ref name="Egypt">[https://www.bbc.co.uk/dna/h2g2/A2791820 "The History of Bread Yeast"]. [[BBC]]. Retrieved 24 December 2006.</ref>
* [[Pie]]s — Early pies were in the form of flat, round or freeform crusty cakes called [[galette]]s consisting of a crust of ground [[oats]], [[wheat]], [[rye]], or [[barley]] containing [[honey]] inside. These galettes developed into a form of early sweet [[pastry]] or [[desserts]], evidence of which can be found on the tomb walls of the [[Pharaoh]] [[Ramesses II]], who ruled from 1304 to 1237 BC, located in the [[Valley of the Kings]].<ref>{{cite web|url= https://whatscookingamerica.net/history/piehistory.htm |title= History of Pies|date= 19 May 2015}}</ref>
* [[Boiled eggs]] — In [[Thebes, Egypt]], the tomb of Haremhab, dating to approximately 1420 BCE, shows a depiction of a man carrying bowls of [[ostrich egg]]s and other large eggs, presumably those of the [[pelican]], as offerings.<ref name=Brothwell>{{cite book | title = Food in Antiquity: A Survey of the Diet of Early Peoples | first = Don R. | last = Brothwell |author2=Patricia Brothwell | publisher = [[Johns Hopkins University Press]] | pages = 54–55 | isbn = 978-0-8018-5740-9 | year = 1997}}</ref> In ancient Rome, eggs were preserved using a number of methods and meals often started with an egg course.
* [[Marshmallows]] — The first marshmallows were produced in Egypt around 2000 B.c. and were made by mixing Mallow sap, honey, grains and baked into cakes. Marshmallows were only served to the [[Egyptian Mythology|Gods of Ancient Egypt]] and [[pharaoh]]s, as a candy or a dessert.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.boyercandies.com/mallo-history.aspx#:~:text=Marshmallows%20come%20from%20the%20sweet,2%20to%204%20feet%20high.&text=The%20ancient%20Egyptians%20used%20the,Pharaohs%20over%202000%20years%20ago.|title=Marshmallow History-Boyer Candy}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.campfiremarshmallows.com/history-of-marshmallows/|title=Campfire|date=27 January 2015}}</ref>

=== Clothing and Cosmetics ===

* [[Umbrella]] — the earliest known parasols in [[Ancient Egyptian art]] date back to the [[Fifth Dynasty]], around 2450 BC.<ref name="White Muscarella 1999, 1">[[Oscar White Muscarella|White Muscarella, Oscar]] (1999): "Parasols in the Ancient Near East", "Source: Notes in the History of Art", Vol. 18, No. 2, pp.&nbsp;1–7 (1)</ref> The parasol is found in various shapes. In some instances it is depicted as a [[flabellum]], a fan of [[Palm tree|palm]]-leaves or coloured feathers fixed on a long handle, resembling those now carried behind the [[Pope]] in processions.
* [[Hairpin]] — Hairpins made of [[metal]], [[ivory]], [[bronze]], carved [[wood]], etc. were used in [[ancient history|ancient]] [[Egypt]]<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.11141/ia.42.6.5 |issue=42 |title=The Egyptian Hair Pin: practical, sacred, fatal |year=2016 |journal=Internet Archaeology |author=Fletcher Joann, University| doi-access=free}}</ref> for securing decorated [[hairstyle]]s. Such hairpins suggest, as graves show, that many were luxury objects among the Egyptians and later the Greeks, Etruscans, and Romans.
* [[Shirt]] — The world's oldest preserved garment, discovered by [[Flinders Petrie]], is a "highly sophisticated" linen shirt from a First Dynasty Egyptian tomb at [[Tarkhan (Egypt)|Tarkan]], dated to c. 3000 BC: "the shoulders and sleeves have been finely pleated to give form-fitting trimness while allowing the wearer room to move. The small fringe formed during weaving along one edge of the cloth has been placed by the designer to decorate the neck opening and side seam."<ref>Barber, Elizabeth Wayland (1994). ''Women's Work. The first 20,000 Years'', p.135.Norton & Company, New York. {{ISBN|0-393-31348-4}}</ref>
* [[Quilting]] — The earliest known quilted garment is depicted on the carved ivory figure of a Pharaoh dating from the ancient Egyptian First Dynasty (c. 3400 BC).<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.baltimoresun.com/1993/05/09/quiltings-story-started-with-the-pharaohs/|title=Quilting's story started with the pharaohs|first1=Lita |last1=Solis-Cohen |first2=Sally |last2=Solis-Cohen |date=9 May 1993 |work=The Baltimore Sun}}</ref>
* [[Cosmetics|Makeup]] — The origin of cosmetics such as [[Rouge (cosmetics)|Rouge]], [[Eye shadow]], etc. dates back to pre dynastic Egypt.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia | url= https://www.britannica.com/story/why-did-we-start-wearing-makeup | title= Why Did We Start Wearing Makeup?
|encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Britannica}}</ref>
* [[Kohl (cosmetics)|Kohl]]<ref name="Schneider-1">Schneider, Günther et al (2005). "Skin Cosmetics" in Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry, Wiley-VCH, Weinheim</ref>
* [[Liniment]] — made from [[Castor oil]].<ref name="Schneider-1"/>
* [[Henna]] and [[Hair dye]] — Ancient Egyptian, [[Ahmose-Henuttamehu]] (17th Dynasty, 1574 BCE): was probably a daughter of [[Seqenenre Tao]] and [[Ahmose Inhapy]]: Smith reports that the mummy of Henuttamehu's own hair had been dyed a bright red at the sides, probably with henna.<ref>G. Elliott Smith, The Royal Mummies, Duckworth Publishing; (September, 2000)</ref>
* [[High-heeled shoe]] — Paintings circa 3,500 BC. show images of men and women wearing high-heeled shoes. High-heeled shoes was also used by butchers to make them move easily over the dead animals.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://study.com/academy/lesson/who-invented-high-heels.html|title=Who Invented High Heels}}</ref>
* [[Flip-flops]] — Thong sandals have been worn for thousands of years, dating back to pictures of them in [[ancient Egypt]]ian murals from 4,000 BC. Ancient Egyptian sandals were made from papyrus and palm leaves.<ref name="Curtin_Cameron">{{cite book |last=Kippen |first=Cameron |title=The History of Footwear |year=1999|publisher=Department of Podiatry, Curtin University of Technology|location=[[Perth]], [[Australia]]}}</ref>
* [[Hair gel]] — Analysis of [[ancient Egypt]]ian mummies has shown that they styled their hair using a [[fat]]-based [[gel]]. The researchers behind the analysis say that the Egyptians used the product to ensure that their style stayed in place in both life and death. Natalie McCreesh, an archaeological scientist from the KNH Centre for Biomedical Egyptology at the [[University of Manchester]], England, and her colleagues studied hair samples taken from 18 mummies. The oldest is approximately 3,500 years old, but most were excavated from a cemetery in the Dakhleh Oasis in the [[Libyan Desert|Western Desert]] and date from [[Greco-Roman]] times, around 2,300 years ago.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Marchant, Jo|journal=Journal of Archaeological Science |volume =38|issue= 12|date=December 2011|pages =3432–3434|title=Ancient Egyptians used 'hair gel': Mummy analysis finds that fat-based product held styles in place | doi = 10.1016/j.jas.2011.08.004}} *{{cite news |author=Jo Marchant |date=19 August 2011 |title=Ancient Egyptians used 'hair gel' |work=Nature News |url=http://www.nature.com/news/2011/110819/full/news.2011.487.html}}</ref>
* [[Glove]]s<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.fashionintime.org/history-gloves-significance/|title=History of Gloves in Fashion and society|date= 3 September 2020}}</ref>
* [[Perfume]] — The evidence of the first perfumes date to ancient Egypt, Mesopotamia, and Cyprus.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.thoughtco.com/history-of-perfume-1991657|title=The Long History of Perfume}}</ref>

=== Others ===

[[File:Minnakht 01.JPG|thumb|Hieroglyphs on stela in [[Louvre]], circa 1321 BC]]
* [[Egyptian hieroglyphs]] — [[Hieroglyph]]ic symbol systems developed in the second half of the 4th millennium BC, such as the clay labels of a [[Predynastic Egypt|Predynastic]] ruler called "[[Scorpion I]]" ([[Naqada IIIA]] period, c. 33rd century BC) recovered at [[Abydos, Egypt|Abydos]] (modern [[Umm el-Qa'ab]]) in 1998 or the [[Narmer Palette]] (c. 31st century BC).<ref name=Mattessich>{{cite journal|author=Richard Mattessich|year=2002|title=The oldest writings, and inventory tags of Egypt|journal=Accounting Historians Journal|jstor=40698264|volume=29|issue=1|pages=195–208|doi=10.2308/0148-4184.29.1.195|s2cid=160704269|url=https://aprendeenlinea.udea.edu.co/revistas/index.php/cont/article/viewFile/25609/21149|access-date=17 June 2020|archive-date=19 November 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181119082926/https://aprendeenlinea.udea.edu.co/revistas/index.php/cont/article/viewFile/25609/21149}}</ref>
* [[Hieratic]] — Hieratic developed as a cursive form of [[Egyptian hieroglyphs|hieroglyphic script]] in the [[Naqada III]] period, roughly 3200–3000 BCE.<ref>Friedhelm Hoffmann (2012), '' Hieratic And Demotic Literature'', OUP.</ref>
[[File:Ba`alat.png|thumb|right|A specimen of [[Proto-Sinaitic script]], one of the earliest (if not the very first) phonemic scripts]]
* [[Alphabet]] — The history of the alphabet started in [[ancient Egypt]]. Egyptian writing had a set of some [[Egyptian uniliteral signs|24 hieroglyphs]] that are called uniliterals,<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/dna/h2g2/A2451890 |title=The Development of the Western Alphabet |access-date=2008-08-04 |author=Lynn, Bernadette |date=2004-04-08 |work=h2g2 |publisher=BBC}}</ref> to represent syllables that begin with a single [[consonant]] of their language, plus a vowel (or no vowel) to be supplied by the native speaker. These glyphs were used as pronunciation guides for [[logogram]]s, to write grammatical inflections, and, later, to transcribe loan words and foreign names.<ref name=Daniels>{{harvnb|Daniels|Bright|1996|pp=74–75}}</ref> In the [[Middle Bronze Age]], an apparently "alphabetic" system known as the [[Proto-Sinaitic script]] appears in Egyptian turquoise mines in the [[Sinai Peninsula]] dated to circa the 15th century BC, apparently left by Canaanite workers. In 1999, John and Deborah Darnell discovered an even earlier version of this first alphabet at Wadi el-Hol dated to circa 1800 BC and showing evidence of having been adapted from specific forms of Egyptian hieroglyphs that could be dated to circa 2000 BC, strongly suggesting that the first alphabet had been developed about that time.<ref>{{cite journal |first1=J. C. |last1=Darnell |author-link1=John Coleman Darnell |first2=F. W. |last2=Dobbs-Allsopp |author-link2=F. W. Dobbs-Allsopp |first3=Marilyn J. |last3=Lundberg |first4=P. Kyle |last4=McCarter |author-link4=P. Kyle McCarter |first5=Bruce |last5=Zuckerman |first6=Colleen |last6=Manassa |author6-link=Colleen Darnell |title=Two Early Alphabetic Inscriptions from the Wadi el-Ḥôl: New Evidence for the Origin of the Alphabet from the Western Desert of Egypt |journal=The Annual of the American Schools of Oriental Research |volume=59 |year=2005 |pages=63, 65, 67–71, 73–113, 115–124 |jstor=3768583}}</ref> Based on letter appearances and names, it is believed to be based on Egyptian hieroglyphs.<ref name="Coulmas 140">{{harvnb|Coulmas|1989|pp=140–141}}</ref> This script had no characters representing vowels, although originally it probably was a syllabary, but unneeded symbols were discarded.
[[File:Gaming Board Inscribed for Amenhotep III with Separate Sliding Drawer, ca. 1390-1353 B.C.E.,49.56a-b.jpg|thumb|''Senet'' gaming board inscribed for Amenhotep III with separate sliding drawer, c. 1390–1353 BC]]
* [[Board game]]s / [[Senet]] — Senet, found in [[Predynastic Egypt|Predynastic]] and [[First dynasty of Egypt|First Dynasty]] burials of Egypt, c. 3500&nbsp;BC and 3100&nbsp;BC respectively,<ref name="senet1">{{cite journal |url=http://www.piccionep.people.cofc.edu/piccione_senet.pdf |title=In Search of the Meaning of Senet |first=Peter A. |last=Piccione |journal=Archaeology |date=July–August 1980 |pages=55–58 |access-date=2018-07-14 }}</ref> is the oldest board game known to have existed. Senet was pictured in a [[fresco]] found in Merknera's tomb (3300–2700&nbsp;BC).<ref name="senet2">{{cite web |url=http://www.hrejsi.cz/clanky/dama1.html |archive-url=https://archive.today/20121208220158/http://www.hrejsi.cz/clanky/dama1.html |archive-date=8 December 2012 |title=''Okno do svita deskovych her'' |publisher=Hrejsi.cz |date=1998-04-27 |access-date=2010-02-12 }}</ref><ref name="Pivotto">{{cite web |last=Pivotto |first=Carlos |url=http://worldcomp-proceedings.com/proc/p2011/EEE3388.pdf |title=Detection of Negotiation Profile and Guidance to more Collaborative Approaches through Negotiation Games |access-date=2014-10-02 |display-authors=etal}}</ref>
* [[Mehen (game)|Mehen]] — Evidence of the game of Mehen is found from the [[Prehistoric Egypt|Predynastic]] period dating from approximately 3000 BC and continues until the end of the [[Old Kingdom of Egypt|Old Kingdom]], around 2300 BC.<ref>{{cite book|title=Ancient Egyptians at Play: Board Games Across Borders|last=Crist|first=Walter|display-authors=etal|publisher=Bloomsbury|year=2016|isbn=978-1-4742-2117-7|location=London|pages=15–38}}</ref>
* [[Writing]] — writing first arose in Egypt around 3300 BC, contemporaneous with Mesopotamia or may predate it.<ref>"The world's earliest known writing systems emerged at more or less the same time, around 3300 bc, in Egypt and Mesopotamia (today's Iraq)."{{Cite book |title= Before the Pyramids: The Origins of Egyptian Civilization |last= Teeter |first= Emily|publisher= Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago|year= 2011 |page=99}}</ref><ref>"Although it was once thought that the idea of writing came to Egypt from Mesopotamia, recent discoveries indicate that writing arose first in Egypt."{{Cite book |title= Middle Egyptian: An Introduction to the Language and Culture of Hieroglyphs|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=lF78Max-h8MC&q=recent+discoveries+indicate+writing |last= Allen |first= James P. |publisher= Cambridge University Press |year= 2010 |page=2| isbn=9781139486354 }}</ref><ref>"and examples of writing in Egypt have been found that very well may pre-date the earliest writing from Mesopotamia."{{cite book |last1=Boudreau |first1=Vincent |title=The First Writing: Script Invention as History and Process |date=2004 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=9780521838610 |page=71 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jsWL_XJt-dMC&pg=PA71 |language=en}}</ref>
* [[Monotheism]] — The earliest known instance of monotheism appeared in 14th century BC Egypt during the reign of Akhenaten.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia | url= https://www.britannica.com/summary/monotheism | title= monotheism summary
|encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Britannica}}</ref>
* [[School]] — Perhaps the earliest formal school was developed in Egypt's Middle Kingdom under the direction of Kheti, treasurer to [[Mentuhotep II]] (2061-2010 BC).<ref>{{cite web |author=Marie Parsons |title=Education in Ancient Egypt |website=Tour Egypt |url=http://www.touregypt.net/featurestories/educate.htm}}</ref>
* [[Sick leave]] — Already in 1500 BCE, at least some of the workers who built the tombs of Egyptian [[pharaoh]]s received paid sick leave as well as state-supported [[health care]].<ref>{{cite news|title=Even the ancient Egyptians had paid sick days|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/posteverything/wp/2015/02/17/even-the-ancient-egyptians-had-paid-sick-days/|author=Anne Austin|date=17 February 2015|newspaper=Washington Post|access-date=8 September 2015|archive-date=1 April 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190401191933/https://www.washingtonpost.com/posteverything/wp/2015/02/17/even-the-ancient-egyptians-had-paid-sick-days/|url-status=live}}</ref>
* [[Strike action]] — The first historically certain account of strike action was towards the end of the [[Twentieth Dynasty of Egypt|20th Dynasty]], under Pharaoh [[Ramesses III|Ramses III]] in [[ancient Egypt]] on 14 November in 1152 BC. The artisans of the Royal Necropolis at [[Deir el-Medina]] walked off their jobs because they had not been paid.<ref>François Daumas, (1969). ''Ägyptische Kultur im Zeitalter der Pharaonen'', pp. 309. [[Knaur Verlag]], [[Munich]]</ref><ref>John Romer, ''Ancient Lives; the story of the Pharaoh's Tombmakers. London'': Phoenix Press, 1984, pp. 116–123 See also E.F. Wente, "A letter of complaint to the Vizier To", in ''Journal of Near Eastern Studies'', 20, 1961 and W.F. Edgerton, "The strikes in Ramses III's Twenty-ninth year", ''Journal of Near Eastern Studies'', 10, 1951.</ref>
[[File:Narmer-Tjet2.JPG|thumb|left|A detail from the [[Narmer Palette]], with the oldest known depiction of vexilloids.]]
*[[Vexilloid]] — The oldest known vexilloids appear as depictions on Egyptian pottery from the [[Gerzeh culture]] and on the reverse of the [[Narmer Palette]]. These vexilloids were symbols of the [[Nome (Egypt)|nomes]] of pre-dynastic Egypt.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Znamierowski|first1=Alfred |last2=Slater|first2=Stephen|date=2007 |title=The World Encyclopedia of Flags and Heraldry, An International History of Heraldry and Its Contemporary Uses Together with the Definitive Guide to National Flags, Banners, Standards and Ensigns |publisher=Fall River Press|page=13 |isbn=978-1-4351-1838-6}}</ref>
* [[Sarcophagus]] — The earliest stone sarcophagi were used by Egyptian pharaohs of the 3rd dynasty, which reigned from about 2686 to 2613 B.C.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia | url= https://www.britannica.com/topic/sarcophagus | title= sarcophagus |encyclopedia=Britannica| date= 29 September 2023 }}</ref>
* [[Histiography]] and [[King list]]s — The pharaohs of Egypt used to glorify their ancestors. The [[Den seal impressions]] is the oldest [[King list]] in the world dating to 3000 BC.<ref>Günter Dreyer: ''Ein Siegel der frühzeitlichen Königsnekropole von Abydos'', in: ''MDAIK'' 43 (1986). 33–43</ref> The [[Palermo Stone]] is one of seven surviving fragments of a [[stele]] known as the Royal Annals of the [[Old Kingdom of Egypt|Old Kingdom]] of [[Ancient Egypt]]. The stele contained a list of the kings of Egypt from the [[First dynasty of Egypt|First Dynasty]] (~3150–2890 BCE) through to the early part of the [[fifth dynasty of Egypt|Fifth Dynasty]] (approx 2392–2283 BCE) and noted significant events in each year of their reigns. It was probably made during the Fifth Dynasty.<ref name=Dodson>Dodson, Aidan (2004) ''The Complete Royal Families of Ancient Egypt'', p.62. Thames & Hudson, {{ISBN|0-500-05128-3}}.</ref> These inscriptions are considered as the oldest History studies.
* [[Logbook]]s — The [[Diary of Merer]] (''Papyrus Jarf A and B'') is the name for [[papyrus]] [[logbook]]s written over 4,500 years ago that record the daily activities of stone transportation from the [[Tura, Egypt|Tura]] [[limestone]] quarry to and from [[Giza]] during the [[4th Dynasty]]. They are the oldest known papyri with text. The text was found in 2013 by a French mission under the direction of archaeologists [[Pierre Tallet]] of [[Paris-Sorbonne University]] and Gregory Marouard in a cave in [[Wadi al-Jarf]] on the [[Red Sea]] coast.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nbcnews.com/science/cosmic-log/4-500-year-old-harbor-structures-papyrus-texts-unearthed-egypt-flna1C9356840 |title=4,500-year-old harbor structures and papyrus texts unearthed in Egypt|website=NBC News|date=16 April 2013 |language=en |access-date=2019-07-30 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.catchnews.com/culture-news/story-of-the-pyramid-builders-revealed-in-4500-yr-old-papyri-1469036410.html |title=Story of the Pyramid builders revealed in 4500-yr-old papyri|website=CatchNews.com|language=en |access-date=2019-07-30 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://interestingengineering.com/a-4500-year-old-papyrus-holds-the-answer-to-how-the-great-pyramid-was-built |title=A 4,500 Year Old Papyrus Holds the Answer to How the Great Pyramid Was Built |date=2017-09-25 |website=interestingengineering.com |language=en-US|access-date=2019-07-30 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://mysteriousearth.net/2017/08/18/revealed-4500-year-old-papyrus-that-details-the-construction-of-the-great-pyramid-2/ |title=Revealed: 4,500-year-old Papyrus that details the construction of the Great Pyramid – Mysterious Earth |language=en-US |access-date=2019-07-30 |archive-date=16 November 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201116045447/http://mysteriousearth.net/2017/08/18/revealed-4500-year-old-papyrus-that-details-the-construction-of-the-great-pyramid-2/ }}</ref>
* [[Tobacco pipe]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.pipe-maker.com/pipe-history.html|title=A brief history of pipe smoking}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.tobaccopipes.com/blog/tobacco-pipes-history-looking-back/|title=Tobacco Pipes History:Looking Back}}</ref>


[[File:Design of the Abydos token glyphs dated to 3400-3200 BCE.jpg|thumb|right|Designs on some of the labels or token from [[Abydos, Egypt|Abydos]], carbon-dated to circa 3400–3200 BC and among the earliest form of writing in Egypt.<ref name="CS">{{cite book |last1=Scarre |first1=Chris |last2=Fagan |first2=Brian M. |title=Ancient Civilizations |date=2016 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=9781317296089 |page=106 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xAy4CwAAQBAJ&pg=PA10 |language=en}}</ref> They are virtually similar to contemporary clay tags from [[Uruk]], [[Mesopotamia]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Conference |first1=William Foxwell Albright Centennial |title=The Study of the Ancient Near East in the Twenty-first Century: The William Foxwell Albright Centennial Conference |date=1996 |publisher=Eisenbrauns |isbn=9780931464966 |page=–24–25 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3hc1Yp0VcjoC&pg=PA24 |language=en}}</ref>]]

== Graeco-Roman Egypt ==

=== Hero of Alexandria<ref>[[George Sarton]] (1936). "The Unity and Diversity of the Mediterranean World", ''Osiris'' 2, p. 406-463 [429]</ref><ref>{{cite episode |title=Hero of Alexandria |series=The Engines of Our Ingenuity |series-link=The Engines of Our Ingenuity |credits=John H. Lienhard |network=NPR |station=KUHF-FM Houston |air-date=1995 |number=1038 |url=http://www.uh.edu/engines/epi1038.htm}}</ref><ref>T. D. De Marco (1974). "Gas-Turbine Standby-Power Generation for Water-Treatment Plants", ''Journal American Water Works Association'' 66 (2), p. 133-138.</ref><ref>Victor J. Katz (1998). ''A History of Mathematics: An Introduction'', p. 184. Addison Wesley, {{isbn|0-321-01618-1}}: "''But what we really want to know is to what extent the Alexandrian mathematicians of the period from the first to the fifth centuries C.E. were Greek. Certainly, all of them wrote in Greek and were part of the Greek intellectual community of Alexandria. And most modern studies conclude that the Greek community coexisted [...] So should we assume that Ptolemy and Diophantus, Pappus and Hypatia were ethnically Greek, that their ancestors had come from Greece at some point in the past but had remained effectively isolated from the Egyptians? It is, of course, impossible to answer this question definitively. But research in papyri dating from the early centuries of the common era demonstrates that a significant amount of intermarriage took place between the Greek and Egyptian communities [...] And it is known that Greek marriage contracts increasingly came to resemble Egyptian ones. In addition, even from the founding of Alexandria, small numbers of Egyptians were admitted to the privileged classes in the city to fulfill numerous civic roles. Of course, it was essential in such cases for the Egyptians to become "Hellenized," to adopt Greek habits and the Greek language. Given that the Alexandrian mathematicians mentioned here were active several hundred years after the founding of the city, it would seem at least equally possible that they were ethnically Egyptian as that they remained ethnically Greek. In any case, it is unreasonable to portray them with purely European features when no physical descriptions exist.''"</ref> ===

[[File:Triangle with notations 2 without points.svg|thumb|198px|A triangle with sides ''a'', ''b'', and ''c''.]]
* [[Heron's formula]] — Hero described a [[Hero's method|method for iteratively computing the square root]] of a number.<ref>{{cite book
  | last = Heath
  | first = Thomas
  | title = A History of Greek Mathematics, Vol. 2
  | publisher = Clarendon Press
  | year = 1921
  | location = Oxford
  | pages = [https://archive.org/details/ahistorygreekma00heatgoog/page/n340 323]–324
  | url = https://archive.org/details/ahistorygreekma00heatgoog
  }}</ref> Today, however, his name is most closely associated with Heron's formula for finding the area of a triangle from its side lengths.

* He also devised a method for calculating cube roots in the 1st century AD.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Smyly|first=J. Gilbart|title=Heron's Formula for Cube Root|journal=Hermathena|year=1920|volume=19|issue=42|pages=64–67|publisher=Trinity College Dublin|jstor=23037103}}</ref> He also designed a shortest path algorithm, [https://brilliant.org/wiki/shortest-path-theory/ Given two points A and B on one side of a line, find C a point on the straight line, that minimizes AC+BC.]
* [[Vending machine]] — The first vending machine was also one of his constructions; when a coin was introduced via a slot on the top of the machine, a set amount of holy water was dispensed. This was included in his list of inventions in his book ''Mechanics and Optics''. When the coin was deposited, it fell upon a pan attached to a lever. The lever opened up a valve which let some water flow out. The pan continued to tilt with the weight of the coin until it fell off, at which point a counter-weight would snap the lever back up and turn off the valve.<ref>{{Cite book
| publisher = Routledge
| isbn = 978-0-415-06137-7
| last = Humphrey
| first = John W.
|author2=John P. Oleson |author3=Andrew N. Sherwood
 | title = Greek and Roman technology: A Sourcebook. Annotated translations of Greek and Latin texts and documents
| location = London and New York
| series = Routledge Sourcebooks for the Ancient World
| year = 1998
}}, pp. 66–67</ref>

* [[Force pump]] — The force pump was widely used in the [[Ancient Rome|Roman]] world, and one application was in a fire-engine.<ref name="Popular Mechanics: Heron">{{cite web|url=https://www.popularmechanics.com/science/energy/a34554479/heron-aeolipile/|title=Popular Mechanics: Heron|date=29 November 2020}}</ref>
* [[Heron's fountain]] — A standalone fountain that operates under self-contained hydro-static energy; now called Heron's fountain.<ref name="Popular Mechanics: Heron"/>
* In optics, Hero formulated the [[Fermat's principle|principle of the shortest path of light]]: If a ray of light propagates from point A to point B within the same medium, the path-length followed is the shortest possible. In his ''[[Catoptrics]]'' (1st century CE), he showed that the ordinary [[specular reflection|law of reflection]] off a plane surface follows from the premise that the total ''length'' of the ray path is a minimum.<ref>[[#Sabra81|Sabra, 1981]], pp.{{nnbsp}}69–71. As the author notes, the law of reflection itself is found in Proposition&nbsp;{{serif|XIX}} of [[Euclid's Optics|Euclid's ''Optics'']].</ref> It was nearly 1000 years later that [[Alhacen]] expanded the principle to both reflection and refraction, and the principle was later stated in this form by [[Pierre de Fermat]] in 1662; the most modern form is that the optical path is [[stationary point|stationary]].
* A wind-wheel operating an organ, marking the first instance in history of wind powering a machine.<ref name="Drachmann">[[A. G. Drachmann]], "Heron's Windmill", ''Centaurus'', 7 (1961), pp. 145–151</ref><ref name="Lohrmann 10f.">Dietrich Lohrmann, "Von der östlichen zur westlichen Windmühle", ''Archiv für Kulturgeschichte'', Vol. 77, Issue 1 (1995), pp. 1–30 (10f.)</ref>
* Hero also invented many mechanisms for the Greek [[theater]], including an entirely mechanical play almost ten minutes in length, powered by a binary-like system of ropes, knots, and simple machines operated by a rotating cylindrical cogwheel. The sound of [[thunder]] was produced by the mechanically timed dropping of metal balls onto a hidden drum.<ref name="Popular Mechanics: Heron"/>
* A programmable cart that was powered by a falling weight. The "program" consisted of strings wrapped around the drive axle.<ref>* {{cite web|title=A programmable robot from AD 60|author=Noel Sharkey|publisher=New Scientist|url=https://www.newscientist.com/blog/technology/2007/07/programmable-robot-from-60ad.html|date=4 July 2007|volume=2611|access-date=29 August 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170905101636/https://www.newscientist.com/blog/technology/2007/07/programmable-robot-from-60ad.html|archive-date=5 September 2017}}</ref>
* [[Automatic door]] — In the 1st century AD, mathematician [[Heron of Alexandria]] in [[Roman Egypt]] invented the first known automatic door. He described two different automatic door applications. The first application used heat from a fire lit by the city's temple priest. After a few hours atmospheric pressure built up in a brass vessel causing it to pump water into adjacent containers. These containers acted as weights that, through a series of ropes and pulleys, would open the temple's doors at about the time people were to arrive for prayer. Heron used a similar application to open the gates to the city.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://hellenicnews.com/20717-2/|title=10 Things We Wouldn't Have Without Ancient Greece|website=hellenicnews.com|date=25 July 2016}}</ref>

=== Pappus of Alexandria ===

* [[Pappus's hexagon theorem]]
* [[Pappus's centroid theorem]]

=== Ptolemy ===

* [[Ptolemy's world map]] — It included 8,000 locations from [[Shetland islands]] to the [[Ethiopian plateau]] and from the [[Canary Islands]] to [[China]]. Significant contributions of Ptolemy's map is the first use of longitudinal and latitudinal lines as well as specifying terrestrial locations by celestial observations. The ''Geography'' was translated from [[Greek language|Greek]] into [[Arabic language|Arabic]] in the 9th century and played a role in the work of [[al-Khwārizmī]] before [[Geography in medieval Islam|lapsing into obscurity]]. The idea of a global coordinate system revolutionized European geographical thought, however, and inspired more mathematical treatment of cartography.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Ptolemy#:~:text=What%20were%20Ptolemy's%20achievements%3F,equal%20angles%20to%20a%20mirror.|title=Ptolemy: Accomplishments, Biography, and Facts|date=20 June 2023 }}</ref>
* Ptolemy was the first to measure the [[Angle of incidence (optics)|angles of incidence]] and [[Angle of refraction|refraction]] but failed to understand the relation between them ([[Snell's Law]]).<ref>David Michael Harland (2007). "''[https://books.google.com/books?id=ScORNbV0E8wC&pg=PA1 Cassini at Saturn: Huygens results]''". p.1. {{ISBN|0-387-26129-X}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Ptolemy (ca. 100-ca. 170) |work=Eric Weinstein's World of Scientific Biography |url=http://scienceworld.wolfram.com/biography/Ptolemy.html}}</ref>
* [[Ptolemy's intense diatonic scale]] — Ptolemy's intense diatonic scale is a [[musical tuning|tuning]] for the [[diatonic scale]] proposed by [[Ptolemy]],<ref>see {{cite book|first=John|last=Wallis|title=Opera Mathematica, Vol. III|publisher=Oxford|year=1699|page=39}} (Contains ''Harmonics'' by Claudius Ptolemy.)</ref> declared by [[Gioseffo Zarlino|Zarlino]] to be the only tuning that could be reasonably sung, and corresponding with modern [[just intonation]].<ref name="EB">Chisholm, Hugh (1911). ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=vf8tAAAAIAAJ&dq=ptolemy%27s+intense+diatonic+scale&pg=PA961 The Encyclopædia Britannica]'', Vol.28, p. 961. The Encyclopædia Britannica Company.</ref> It is also supported by [[Giuseppe Tartini]].<ref>Dr. Crotch (1 October 1861). "[https://archive.org/stream/jstor-3355208/3355208#page/n1/mode/2up On the Derivation of the Scale, Tuning, Temperament, the Monochord, etc.]", ''The Musical Times'', p. 115.</ref>
* [[Ptolemy]]'s contribution to the science of [[Trigonometry]] — are many, among them a theorem that was central to Ptolemy's calculation of chords was what is still known today as [[Ptolemy's theorem]], that the sum of the products of the opposite sides of a [[cyclic quadrilateral]] is equal to the product of the diagonals. A special case of Ptolemy's theorem appeared as proposition 93 in Euclid's ''Data''. Ptolemy's theorem leads to the equivalent of the four sum-and-difference formulas for sine and cosine that are today known as Ptolemy's formulas, although Ptolemy himself used chords instead of sine and cosine.<ref name="Boyer Ptolemy">{{harvnb|Boyer|1991|loc=Greek Trigonometry and Mensuration|pp=[https://archive.org/details/historyofmathema00boye/page/164 164]–166}}</ref> Ptolemy further derived the equivalent of the half-angle formula
: <math>\sin^2\left(\frac{x}{2}\right) = \frac{1 - \cos(x)}{2}</math>.

=== Others ===
[[File:BLW Pair of socks.jpg|thumb|The earliest known surviving pair of socks, created by [[naalbinding]]. Dating from 300 to 500, these were excavated from [[Oxyrhynchus]] on the Nile in Egypt. The split toes were designed for use with sandals. On display in the [[Victoria and Albert museum]], reference 2085&A-1900.]]
* [[Saqiyah]] — Paddle-driven water-lifting wheels had appeared in [[Ancient Egyptian technology|ancient Egypt]] by the 4th century BCE.<ref>{{cite book |contribution=Chapter 6: Sources of Energy and Exploitation of Power |author=Örjan Wikander |author-link=Örjan Wikander |title=The Oxford Handbook of Engineering and Technology in the Classical World|editor=John Peter Oleson |editor-link=John Peter Oleson |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |year=2008 |isbn=978-0-19-518731-1 |pages=141–2}}</ref> According to [[John Peter Oleson]], both the compartmented wheel and the hydraulic noria appeared in [[Egypt]] by the 4th century BCE, with the sakia being invented there a century later. This is supported by archeological finds at [[Faiyum]], where the oldest archeological evidence of a [[water wheel]] has been found, in the form of a sakia dating back to the 3rd century BCE. A [[papyrus]] dating to the 2nd century BCE also found in Faiyum mentions a water wheel used for irrigation, a 2nd-century BC [[fresco]] found at [[Alexandria]] depicts a compartmented sakia, and the writings of [[Callixenus of Rhodes]] mention the use of a sakia in the [[Ptolemaic Kingdom]] during the reign of [[Ptolemy IV Philopator]] in the late 3rd century BCE.<ref name=Miranda>{{cite book |title=Water architecture in the lands of Syria: the water-wheels |author=Adriana de Miranda |publisher=L'Erma di Bretschneider |year=2007 |isbn=978-88-8265-433-7 |pages=38–9}}</ref>
* Fifteen centuries before [[Braille]], wood-carving techniques were in use in the Catechical school of Alexandria by blind scholars to read and write.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/277965274|title=Research gate: The Catechical School in Alexandria}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://st-takla.org/Coptic-church-1.html|title=The History of the Coptic Orthodox Church of Egypt and the Copts}}</ref>

=== Religion ===

* [[Catechesis]] — The oldest Catechical school in the world is the catechical school of [[Alexandria]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.copticchurch.net/topics/patrology/schoolofalex/I-Intro/chapter1.html|title=The School of Alexandria – Part I – An Introduction to the School of Alexandria|website=www.copticchurch.net|access-date=2017-09-17 }}</ref>
* [[Monasticism]] — Another major contribution made by the Copts in Egypt to [[Christianity]] was the creation and organization of [[monasticism]]. Worldwide Christian monasticism stems, either directly or indirectly, from the Egyptian example. The most prominent figures of the monastic movement were [[Anthony the Great]], [[Paul of Thebes]], [[Macarius the Great]], [[Shenouda the Archimandrite]] and [[Pachomius|Pachomius the Cenobite]]. By the end of the 5th century, there were hundreds of monasteries, and thousands of cells and caves scattered throughout the Egyptian desert. Since then pilgrims have visited the Egyptian [[Desert Fathers]] to emulate their spiritual, disciplined lives. [[Saint Basil|Saint Basil the Great]] Archbishop of [[Caesarea Mazaca]], and the founder and organiser of the monastic movement in [[Asia Minor]], visited [[Egypt]] around 357&nbsp;AD and his monastic rules are followed by the [[Eastern Orthodox Churches]]. [[Saint Jerome]], who translated the [[Bible]] into [[Latin]], came to [[Egypt]] while en route to [[Jerusalem]] around 400&nbsp;AD and left details of his experiences in his letters. [[Benedict of Nursia|Saint Benedict]] founded the [[Benedictine Order]] in the 6th century on the model of [[Saint Pachomius]], although in a stricter form.

== Islamic Egypt ==
* [[Fountain pen]] — According to [[Qadi al-Nu'man]] al-Tamimi (d. 974) in his ''Kitab al-Majalis wa 'l-musayarat'', the [[Fatimid]] [[caliph]] [[Al-Mu'izz li-Din Allah]] in [[Egypt in the Middle Ages|Egypt]] demanded a pen that would not stain his hands or clothes, and was provided with a pen that held ink in a reservoir, allowing it to be held upside-down without leaking.<ref>{{Cite journal|journal=[[Journal of Semitic Studies]]|volume=26|issue=1|year=1981|pages=229–234|title=A Mediaeval Islamic Prototype of the Fountain Pen?|first=C. E.|last=Bosworth|quote=We wish to construct a pen which can be used for writing without having recourse to an ink-holder and whose ink will be contained inside it. A person can fill it with ink and write whatever he likes. The writer can put it in his sleeve or anywhere he wishes and it will not stain nor will any drop of ink leak out of it. The ink will flow only when there is an intention to write. We are unaware of anyone previously ever constructing (a pen such as this) and an indication of 'penetrating wisdom' to whoever contemplates it and realises its exact significance and purpose. I exclaimed, 'Is this possible?' He replied, 'It is possible if God so wills'.|doi=10.1093/jss/26.2.229}}</ref>
* [[Packaging and labeling]] — The earliest recorded use of paper for packaging dates back to 1035, when a [[Persian people|Persian]] traveler visiting markets in [[Cairo]], [[Egypt in the Middle Ages|Egypt]], noted that vegetables, spices and hardware were wrapped in paper for the customers after they were sold.<ref>{{cite journal|title=The Origins of Paper Based Packaging|author=Diana Twede|journal=Conference on Historical Analysis & Research in Marketing Proceedings|volume=12|year=2005|pages=288–300 [289]|url=http://faculty.quinnipiac.edu/charm/CHARM%20proceedings/CHARM%20article%20archive%20pdf%20format/Volume%2012%202005/288%20twede.pdf|access-date=20 March 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110716105826/http://faculty.quinnipiac.edu/charm/CHARM%20proceedings/CHARM%20article%20archive%20pdf%20format/Volume%2012%202005/288%20twede.pdf|archive-date=16 July 2011}}</ref>
* [[Sugar refinery]] — Date back to the 12th century in Medieval Egypt.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Satō |first1=Tsugitaka |title=State and Rural Society in Medieval Islam: Sultans, Muqtaʻs, and Fallahun |date=1997 |publisher=BRILL |isbn=9789004106499 |pages=119, 211, 215 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MycQL-9_bqwC}}</ref>
* [[Abu Kamil]]'s [[irrational numbers]] — was an Egyptian scientist who's considered to be the first [[mathematician]] to systematically use and accept [[irrational numbers]] as solutions and [[coefficients]] to equations.<ref>{{cite book|title=Islamic mathematics. In Selin, Helaine; D'Ambrosio, Ubiratàn (eds.). Mathematics Across Cultures: The History of Non-Western Mathematics.|author1=Sesiano|author2=Jacques|date=2000|publisher=Springer|page=148|isbn=1402002602}}</ref>
* Da'irah al-Mu'addal An astronomical device invented by the Egyptian scientist [['Abd al-'Aziz al-Wafa'i]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.eternalegypt.org/EternalEgyptWebsiteWeb/HomeServlet?ee_website_action_key=action.display.element&story_id=&module_id=&language_id=3&element_id=1678&ee_messages=0001.flashrequired.text|title= عبد العزيز الوفائي|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20150924002632/http://www.eternalegypt.org/EternalEgyptWebsiteWeb/HomeServlet?ee_website_action_key=action.display.element&story_id=&module_id=&language_id=3&element_id=1678&ee_messages=0001.flashrequired.text|archive-date= 2015-09-24}}</ref>
* In the late 10th and early 11th centuries AD, the Egyptian astronomer [[Ibn Yunus]] performed many careful trigonometric calculations and demonstrated the following [[trigonometric identity]]:<ref>William Charles Brice, '[https://books.google.com/books?id=6DYVAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA413 An Historical atlas of Islam]', p.413</ref>

:<math>\cos a \cos b = \frac{\cos(a+b) + \cos(a-b)}{2}</math>
* The astrolabic [[Quadrant (instrument)|quadrant]] was invented in [[Egypt]] in the 11th century or 12th century, and later known in Europe as the "[[Quadrans Vetus]]" (Old Quadrant).<ref>{{cite journal |last1=King |first1=David A. |last2=van&nbsp;Cleempoel |first2=Koenraad |last3=Moreno |first3=Roberto |year=2002 |title=A recently discovered sixteenth-century Spanish astrolabe |journal=Annals of Science |volume=59 |issue=4 |pages=331–362 |s2cid=144335909 |doi=10.1080/00033790110095813}}</ref>

== Modern Egypt ==
[[File:MOSFET Structure.png|thumb|[[Metal–oxide–semiconductor field-effect transistor]] (MOSFET)]]
[[File:PWCT 1.9 - Goal Designer.png|thumb|The [[PWCT]] visual programming language.]]
[[File:Mansourasaurus NT.jpg|thumb|Restoration of [[Mansourasaurus]].]]
* Cancer treatment with gold — This discovery was made by the Egyptian scientist [[Mostafa El-Sayed]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://egyptindependent.com/egyptian-cancer-treatment-gold-proves-successful/#:~:text=Egypt%20Independent,-January%203%2C%202017&text=Animal%20testing%20for%20the%20treatment,%2C%20Professor%20Mostafa%20al%2DSayed.|title=Egyptian cancer treatment with gold proves success|date=3 January 2017}}</ref>
* [[Metal–oxide–semiconductor field-effect transistor]] (MOSFET) — Invented by Egyptian engineer [[Mohamed M. Atalla]] with [[Dawon Kahng]] at [[Bell Labs]] in 1959 and demonstrated in 1960.<ref name="atalla">{{cite web|title=Martin (John) M. Atalla |publisher=[[National Inventors Hall of Fame]] |year=2009 |url=https://www.invent.org/inductees/martin-john-m-atalla |access-date=21 June 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Lojek |first1=Bo |title=History of Semiconductor Engineering |url=https://archive.org/details/historysemicondu00loje_697 |url-access=limited |date=2007 |publisher=[[Springer Science & Business Media]] |isbn=9783540342588 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/historysemicondu00loje_697/page/n128 120]& 321–323}}</ref>
* [[WiLAN]], [[Wi-Fi]], [[LAN]], [[3G]] and [[4G]] — In 1992, Hatim Zaghloul and Michel Fattouche co-founded WiLAN<ref name=founding>{{cite news |url=https://beta.theglobeandmail.com/report-on-business/wi-lan-caught-between-a-rock-and-a-hard-place/article1194297/ |title=Wi-LAN caught between a rock and a hard place |newspaper=The Globe and Mail |date=21 November 2000 |access-date=20 September 2017}}</ref> after they developed together the Wideband Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing (W[[OFDM]]),<ref>United States Patent Document patent number 5,282,222</ref>{{Primary source inline|date=May 2017}} and Multi-code [[Direct-sequence]] [[Spread Spectrum]] (MCDSSS).<ref>United States Patent number 5,555,269 and the reissued patent number 38,802</ref>{{Primary source inline|date=May 2017}} Through WiLAN's efforts, the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) has allowed OFDM technology over the 2.4&nbsp;GHz unlicensed ISM band for the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) 802.11 standards. MC-DSSS (MultiCode-[[Direct-sequence]] [[Spread Spectrum]]) is central to high speed [[CDMA]] applications, the main technology currently used by many cellphone networks. The works of Hatim Zaghloul and [[WiLAN]] contributed to the invention of [[Wi-Fi]], [[3G]] technology and [[4G]] technology.
* [[Sameera Moussa]] — developed an equation that would allow the atoms of cheap metals (e.g. Copper) to be split and radiate nuclear radiations.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://egyptianstreets.com/2018/08/12/the-story-of-sameera-world-renowned-egyptian-nuclear-scientist/|title=The Story of Sameera: World-Renowned Egyptian Nuclear Scientist|date=12 August 2018}}</ref>
* [[Femtochemistry]] — Zewail's key work was an explorer of [[femtochemistry]]<ref name="father of">{{cite journal|author1=Douhal, Abderrazzak|author2=Lahmani, Françoise|author3=Zewail, Ahmed H.|title=Proton-transfer reaction dynamics|journal=Chemical Physics|volume=207|issue=2–3|date=1996|pages=477–498|issn=0301-0104|doi=10.1016/0301-0104(96)00067-5|bibcode=1996CP....207..477D}}</ref><ref name="PalZewail2004">{{cite journal|author1=Pal, Samir Kumar|author2=Zewail, Ahmed H.|s2cid=10050118|title=Dynamics of Water in Biological Recognition|journal=Chemical Reviews|volume=104|issue=4|year=2004|pages=2099–2124|issn=0009-2665|doi=10.1021/cr020689l|pmid=15080722}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|author=Zewail, Ahmed H.|title=Femtochemistry: Atomic-Scale Dynamics of the Chemical Bond†|journal=The Journal of Physical Chemistry A|volume=104|issue=24|year=2000|pages=5660–5694|issn=1089-5639|doi=10.1021/jp001460h|bibcode=2000JPCA..104.5660Z}}</ref>—i.e. the study of [[chemical reaction]]s across [[femtosecond]]s. Using a rapid [[ultrafast]] [[laser]] technique (consisting of [[ultrashort pulse|ultrashort]] laser flashes), the technique allows the description of reactions on very short time scales – short enough to analyse [[transition state]]s in selected chemical reactions.<ref>{{cite web|title=Press Release: The 1999 Nobel Prize in Chemistry|date=12 October 1999|url=http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemistry/laureates/1999/press.html|publisher=Nobelprize.org|access-date=12 February 2011}}</ref> Zewail became known as the "father of femtochemistry".<ref>{{cite news|author=Browne, Malcolm W.|title=Nobels for Fast Camera and Tying 2 Forces of Nature|agency=[[Associated Press]]/[[Reuters]]/[[Agence France-Presse]]|newspaper=[[The New York Times]]|date=13 October 1999|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1999/10/13/world/nobels-for-fast-camera-and-tying-2-forces-of-nature.html|access-date=9 August 2016}}</ref>
* [[Speed-ball]] — Speed-Ball is a [[Racquets (sport)|racquet sport]] invented in [[Egypt]] in [[1960 in sports|1961]] by [[Mohamed Lotfy]] (grandfather of Taimour Lotfy) for the training of beginner tennis players. Today it is a sport in its own right, enjoying popularity not only in Egypt but in other countries. Several of these countries make up the International Federation of Speed-Ball (FISB).
* The [[PWCT]] visual programming language<ref>{{Cite journal|title=PWCT — a novel general-purpose visual programming language in support of pervasive application development, CCF Transactions on Pervasive Computing and Interaction, 2020|url=https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s42486-020-00038-y|access-date=2020-10-06|journal=[[CCF Transactions on Pervasive Computing and Interaction]]|date=October 2020|volume=2|issue=3|pages=164–177|doi=10.1007/s42486-020-00038-y|last1=Fayed|first1=Mahmoud S.|s2cid=225395711}}</ref><ref name="EFY">{{cite web |last=Mutha |first=Abhishek A. |title=This Month's DVD Contents |url=https://archive.org/details/Electronics_For_You_Plus_September_2015_IN |website=Electronics For You Magazine |date=September 2015 |publisher=[[EFY Group]]}}</ref> and the [[Ring (programming language)|Ring]] dynamic programming language<ref>{{cite book | doi=10.1007/978-1-4842-5833-0 | title=Beginning Ring Programming | date=2020 | last1=Ayouni | first1=Mansour | isbn=978-1-4842-5832-3 }}</ref> are invented by Egyptian engineer [[Mahmoud Samir Fayed]].<ref name="Springer">{{cite web |url=https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/bbm%3A978-1-4842-5833-0%2F1.pdf |title=A Dialogue with Mahmoud Fayed |author= M. Ayouni|date=29 July 2020 |publisher=[[Springer Nature|Springer]]}}</ref> He started creating [[PWCT]] in 2005 at the [[Faculty of Electronic Engineering, Menoufia University|Faculty of Electronic Engineering]], [[Egypt]].<ref name="PWCTOPENSOURCE">{{cite web |url=http://www.alriyadh.com/321807 |title=Free Open Source Visual Programming Language |first=Hend |last=Al-Khalifa|work=جريدة الرياض |date=29 February 2008 |publisher=[[Al Riyadh (newspaper)|Al Riyadh]]|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201014233849/http://www.alriyadh.com/321807 |archive-date=14 October 2020 }}</ref> He developed [[Ring (programming language)|Ring]] while being a researcher at [[King Saud University]].<ref name="Youm7 (Egyptian daily newspaper)">{{cite web |url=https://www.youm7.com/story/2016/1/11/%D9%81%D9%89-25-%D9%8A%D9%86%D8%A7%D9%8A%D8%B1-%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D9%82%D8%A8%D9%84-%D9%84%D8%BA%D8%A9-%D8%A8%D8%B1%D9%85%D8%AC%D8%A9-%D8%AC%D8%AF%D9%8A%D8%AF%D8%A9-%D8%A8%D9%85%D9%88%D8%A7%D8%B5%D9%81%D8%A7%D8%AA-%D8%B9%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D9%8A%D8%A9-%D9%85%D9%86/2532713 |title= Ring: A New programming language |author=Hany Salah |date=11 January 2016 |work=youm7.com |publisher=[[youm7]]}}</ref><ref name="Youm7_PWCT2">{{cite web |url=https://www.youm7.com/story/2016/11/23/%D8%A8%D8%AF%D8%A1-%D8%AA%D8%B7%D9%88%D9%8A%D8%B1-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AC%D9%8A%D9%84-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AC%D8%AF%D9%8A%D8%AF-%D9%85%D9%86-%D8%AA%D9%82%D9%86%D9%8A%D8%A9-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A8%D8%B1%D9%85%D8%AC%D8%A9-%D8%A8%D8%AF%D9%88%D9%86-%D9%83%D9%88%D8%AF/2979508 |title= Developing Programming Without Coding Technology 2.0|first=Mones |last=Hawas |date=23 November 2016 |website=youm7.com |publisher=[[youm7]]}}</ref>
* [[Mansourasaurus]] — [[Hesham Sallam]], a paleontologist at [[Mansoura University]], together with a team of students discovered a sauropod skeleton in the [[Dakhla Oasis]] in Egypt's Western Desert.<ref name="Kaplan2018">{{cite journal |last=Kaplan |first=Karen |title=Why this dinosaur from Egypt is a big deal in more ways than one |journal=Los Angeles Times |url=http://www.latimes.com/science/sciencenow/la-sci-sn-dinosaur-egypt-mansourasaurus-20180129-story.html |date=2018-01-29 |access-date=2018-01-30 }}</ref> In 2016, it was reported that over thirty dinosaur specimens had been excavated, among them titanosaurian sauropods.<ref>Iman El-Dawoudi, Patrick M O'Connor, Mahmoud Kora and Joseph J W Sertich, 2016, "NEW DINOSAUR REMAINS FROM THE CAMPANIAN QUSEIR FORMATION, WESTERN DESERT, EGYPT", ''SVP October 2016, Program and Abstracts'', p 129</ref>

== Notes ==
{{Notelist}}

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

===Works cited===
{{refbegin|2}}
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* {{cite book |last=Boyer |first=Carl Benjamin |author-link=Carl Benjamin Boyer |title=A History of Mathematics |edition=2nd |publisher=John Wiley & Sons, Inc. |year=1991 |isbn=978-0-471-54397-8 |url=https://archive.org/details/historyofmathema00boye}}
* {{cite book |last1=Clagett |first1=Marshall |title=Ancient Egyptian Science: A Source Book |date=1995<!-- nhn --> |publisher=American Philosophical Society |isbn=978-0-87169-214-6 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xKKPUpDOTKAC&pg=PA28 |language=en}}
* {{Cite book |last=Coulmas |first=Florian |title=The Writing Systems of the World |publisher=Blackwell Publishers Ltd. |year=1989 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VOywmavmZ3UC |isbn=978-0631180289}}
* {{Cite book |last1=Daniels |first1=Peter T. |last2=Bright |first2=William |title=The World's Writing Systems |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |year=1996 |isbn=978-0195079937 |url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780195079937}}
* {{cite book |last1=Grimal |first1=Nicolas |last2=Shaw |first2=Ian |year=1992 |title=A History of Ancient Egypt |publisher=Blackwell Publishing |isbn=978-0-631-19396-8 |url=https://archive.org/details/historyofancient0000grim_j2y0/page/n5/mode/2up |url-access=registration}}
* {{cite book |last=Hart |first=George |year=2005 |title=The Routledge Dictionary of Egyptian Gods and Goddesses |edition=2nd |publisher=Routledge |location=Milton Park, UK |isbn=978-0-415-34495-1}}
* {{cite book |last=Whitrow |first=G. J. |year=1989 |title=Time in History: Views of Time from Prehistory to the Present Day |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-285211-3 |url=https://archive.org/details/timeinhistory00gjwh/page/n7/mode/2up |url-access=registration}}
* {{cite journal |last=Wicker |first=F. D. P. |title=The road to Punt |journal=The Geographical Journal |volume=164 |issue=2 |pages=155–167 |year=1998 |publisher=The Royal Geographical Society (with the Institute of British Geographers) |location=London |jstor=3060367 |doi=10.2307/3060367|bibcode=1998GeogJ.164..155W }}
{{refend}}

== External links ==
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