View source for Cephalopod size

{{short description|Body variation}}
[[File:Giant squid Ranheim.jpg|thumb|The [[giant squid]] (''Architeuthis dux'', pictured) was for a long time thought to be the largest extant cephalopod. It is now known that the [[colossal squid]] (''Mesonychoteuthis hamiltoni'') attains an even greater maximum size. The giant squid seen here measured {{convert|9.24|m|ft|abbr=on}} in total length and had a [[Mantle (mollusc)|mantle]] length of {{convert|1.79|m|ft|abbr=on}}.]]
[[Cephalopod]]s, which include squids and octopuses, vary enormously in size. The smallest are only about {{convert|1|cm|in}} long and weigh less than {{convert|1|g|oz}} at maturity, while the [[giant squid]] can exceed {{convert|10|m|ft}} in length and the [[colossal squid]] weighs close to half a tonne ({{convert|0.5|tonne|lb|disp=output only}}), making them the largest living [[invertebrate]]s. Living species range in mass more than three-billion-fold,{{refn|group=nb|name=massrange|The heaviest scientifically validated cephalopod specimen was a [[colossal squid]] (''Mesonychoteuthis hamiltoni'') weighing {{convert|495|kg|lb|abbr=on}},<ref>[[#Rosaetal2017|Rosa ''et al.'', 2017:1871]]</ref> while hatchlings of ''[[Illex illecebrosus]]''—some of the smallest known—have a mass of around {{convert|0.00015|g|oz|abbr=on}}.<ref name=":2">[[#WoodODor2000|Wood & O'Dor, 2000:93]]</ref> The mass ratio between the two is <math>\left ( \frac{495,000}{0.00015} \right ) = 3,300,000,000</math>.<br />Comparing only adult females, the difference between the colossal squid and the pygmy squid ''[[Idiosepius thailandicus]]''—which weighs {{convert|0.20|g|oz|abbr=on}} at maturity<ref name=":3">[[#Nabhitabhata1998|Nabhitabhata, 1998:28]]</ref>—would be <math>\left ( \frac{495,000}{0.2} \right ) = 2,475,000</math>.}} or across nine [[orders of magnitude]], from the lightest hatchlings to the heaviest adults.<ref>[[#ODorHoar2000|O'Dor & Hoar, 2000:8]]</ref> Certain cephalopod species are also noted for having [[#Anatomical superlatives|individual body parts of exceptional size]].<ref name=":4">[[#Nilssonetal2012|Nilsson ''et al.'', 2012:683]]</ref>

Cephalopods were at one time the [[largest organism|largest of all organisms]] on Earth,<ref>[[#Smithetal2016|Smith ''et al.'', 2016]]</ref> and numerous species of comparable size to the largest present day squids are known from the [[fossil record]], including enormous examples of [[ammonoid]]s, [[belemnoid]]s, [[nautiloid]]s, [[orthoceratoid]]s, [[teuthid]]s, and [[vampyromorphid]]s. In terms of mass, the largest of all known cephalopods were likely the giant shelled ammonoids and [[endocerid]] nautiloids,<ref name=":5">[[#TeichertKummel1960|Teichert & Kummel, 1960:6]]</ref> though perhaps still second to the largest living cephalopods when considering [[Tissue (biology)|tissue mass]] alone.<ref name=":6">[[#Vermeij2016|Vermeij, 2016]]</ref>

Cephalopods vastly larger than either giant or colossal squids have been postulated at various times. One of these was the [[St. Augustine Monster]], a large carcass weighing several tonnes that washed ashore on the [[United States]] coast near [[St. Augustine, Florida|St. Augustine]], [[Florida]], in 1896. Reanalyses in 1995 and 2004 of the original tissue samples—together with those of [[globster|other similar carcasses]]—showed conclusively that they were all masses of the [[collagen]]ous matrix of whale [[blubber]].<ref>[[#Pierceetal1995|Pierce ''et al.'', 1995]]; [[#Pierceetal2004|2004]]</ref>

Giant cephalopods have fascinated humankind for ages. The earliest surviving records are perhaps those of [[Aristotle]] and [[Pliny the Elder]], both of whom described squids of very large size.<ref>[[#Gerhardt1966|Gerhardt, 1966:171]]; [[#Muntz1995|Muntz, 1995]]; [[#Ellis1998a|Ellis, 1998a:11]]</ref> Tales of giant squid have been common among mariners since ancient times, and may have inspired the monstrous [[kraken]] of [[Nordic legend]], said to be as large as an island and capable of engulfing and sinking any ship.<ref>[[#SalvadorTomotani2014|Salvador & Tomotani, 2014]]</ref> Similar tentacled [[sea monster]]s are known from other parts of the globe, including the [[Akkorokamui]] of [[Japan]] and [[Te Wheke-a-Muturangi]] of [[New Zealand]]. The [[Lusca]] of the [[Caribbean]] and [[Scylla]] in [[Greek mythology]] may also derive from giant squid sightings,<ref>[[#Ley1941|Ley, 1941]]</ref> as might eyewitness accounts of other sea monsters such as [[sea serpent]]s.<ref>[[#Lee1883|Lee, 1883]]; [[#Ellis1994b|Ellis, 1994b]]</ref>

Cephalopods of enormous size [[Giant squid in popular culture|have featured prominently in fiction]].<ref>see [[#GarcinRaynal2011|Garcin & Raynal, 2011]]; [[#Barrere2017|Barrère, 2017]]</ref> Some of the best known examples include the giant squid from [[Jules Verne]]'s 1870 novel ''[[Twenty Thousand Leagues Under the Seas]]'' and [[Adaptations of Twenty Thousand Leagues Under the Seas|its various film adaptations]]; the giant octopus from the 1955 [[monster movie]] ''[[It Came from Beneath the Sea]]''; and the giant squid from [[Peter Benchley]]'s 1991 novel ''[[Beast (Benchley novel)|Beast]]'' and the [[The Beast (1996 film)|TV film adaptation of the same name]].

Due to its status as a [[charismatic megafauna]]l species, the giant squid has been proposed as an emblematic animal for [[marine conservation|marine invertebrate conservation]].<ref>[[#Guerraetal2011|Guerra ''et al.'', 2011]]</ref> Life-sized models of the giant squid are a common sight in [[natural history museum]]s around the world,<ref>[[#Tratz1973|Tratz, 1973]]; [[#Ellis1997a|Ellis, 1997a]], [[#Ellis1997b|b]]</ref> and preserved specimens are much sought after for display.<ref>[[#LandmanEllis1998|Landman & Ellis, 1998]]; [[#Ablett2012|Ablett, 2012]]</ref>{{TOC limit|4}}

==Size in teuthology==
[[File:Standard measurements for cephalopods.jpg|thumb|500px|Standard measurements for cephalopods with a squid and octopus as examples]]

===Mantle length===
[[File:Squid mantle width.jpg|thumb|255px|Scientists measuring the mantle width of a large female giant squid of {{circa}}&nbsp;{{convert|2|m|ft|abbr=on}} ML]]
<!--[[File:Squid sucker count.jpg|thumb|255px|Examining the suckers of a giant squid]]
[[File:Steve O'Shea dissecting squid.jpg|thumb|255px|Teuthologist [[Steve O'Shea]] dissecting a giant squid]]-->
Mantle length (ML) is the standard size measure for [[Coleoidea|coleoid]] cephalopods ([[#Shell diameter|shell diameter]] being more common for [[nautilus]]es) and is almost universally reported in the scientific literature. The [[mantle (mollusc)|mantle]] is the cephalopod's "body", lying posterior to the head and enclosing the [[viscera]]l mass and [[mantle cavity]], the latter being used for locomotion by [[jet propulsion]]. Unless otherwise indicated, mantle length is measured [[Dorsum (anatomy)|dorsally]] over the midline of the mantle (sometimes specified as ''dorsal mantle length'', DML). It is a straight-line measure, not measured over the curve of the body. In [[Decapodiformes]] (ten-limbed cephalopods), mantle length is measured from the anterior edge of the mantle (near the head), to the posterior end of the mantle or the apex of the united [[cephalopod fin|fins]], whichever is longer. In [[Octopodiformes]] (eight-limbed cephalopods), the anterior edge of the mantle is not clearly delimited dorsally due to advanced head–mantle fusion, and mantle length is therefore taken from the midpoint between the eyes to the posterior end of the mantle. When ''ventral'' mantle length is meant instead of dorsal this is always specified as such and abbreviated VML.<ref name=":7">[[#RoperVoss1983|Roper & Voss, 1983:58]]</ref>

As an indication of overall size, mantle length is generally considered more reliable than total length because [[cephalopod limb]]s may easily be stretched beyond their natural length and are often damaged or missing in preserved specimens (this is particularly true of the long [[cephalopod limb|tentacles]] of many squid species).<ref>[[#Ellis1998a|Ellis, 1998a:106]]; [[#GlaubrechtSalcedo-Vargas2004|Glaubrecht & Salcedo-Vargas, 2004:62]]</ref> Nevertheless, mantle length is not equally applicable to all species. Certain [[benthic]] octopuses such as ''[[Callistoctopus ornatus]]'' are able to elongate and retract their mantles and therefore mantle length measurements, even when taken from a live specimen, may vary considerably. Another problematic case is that of the gelatinous [[Cirroteuthidae|cirroteuthids]], whose weakly muscled mantles are prone to substantial shrinkage during preservation. The interocular distance may be a more reliable standard for this group.<ref>[[#RoperVoss1983|Roper & Voss, 1983:55]]</ref>

===Total length===
Total length (TL) is measured along the [[Dorsum (anatomy)|dorsal]] midline with the [[cephalopod limb|limbs]] outstretched and in line with the body axis. It is the greatest measurable extent of a specimen from the posterior end of the mantle or [[cephalopod fin|fins]] (or [[cephalopod tail|tail]], if present<ref>see [[#Arkhipkinetal2015|Arkhipkin ''et al.'', 2015]]</ref>) to the apex of the longest limb.<ref name=":7"/> It is recommended that arms and tentacles be measured in a relaxed state so as not to exaggerate their length, but historically this practice was not always followed and some of the more extreme published [[giant squid]] measurements have been attributed to artificial lengthening of the tentacles.<ref name=":8">[[#OSheaBolstad2008|O'Shea & Bolstad, 2008]]</ref> Although total length is often mentioned in relation to the largest cephalopod species, it is otherwise seldom used in teuthology.<ref>[[#RoperYoung1972|Roper & Young, 1972:205]]</ref> As with mantle length, it is a straight-line measure.

Total length is not to be confused with arm span—also known as ''arm spread'', ''radial span'', or ''radial spread''—which may be much larger and is often reported for octopuses (for which the arms usually constitute the vast majority of the length). In squids, total length is inclusive of the feeding tentacles, which in some species may be longer than the mantle, head, and arms combined ([[Chiroteuthidae|chiroteuthids]] such as ''[[Asperoteuthis acanthoderma]]'' being a prime example).

A related measure is standard length (SL), which is the combined length of the mantle, head, and arms, excluding the often long feeding tentacles.<ref>[[#Clarke1996|Clarke, 1996:1105]]; [[#OSheaBolstad2008|O'Shea & Bolstad, 2008]]</ref> This measure is particularly useful for species such as the giant squid, where almost the entire bulk of the animal takes up less than half of its total length.

===Mass===
Mass (often abbreviated WT for 'weight') is reported far less frequently than either mantle or total length, and accurate records do not exist for all of the large cephalopod species. It can also vary widely depending on the state of the specimen at the time of weighing (for example, whether it was measured live or dead, wet or dry, frozen or thawed, pre- or post-fixation, with or without egg mass, and so on).
<!--wet versus dry weight-->
<!--===Other size metrics===
Abbreviations used for measurements and counts are based on standardised acronyms in [[cephalopod|teuthology]], primarily those defined by [[#RoperVoss1983|Roper & Voss (1983)]], with the exception of several found in older references (see [[#SweeneyRoper2001|Sweeney & Roper, 2001]]). https://www.tonmo.com/pages/measurements/

====Arms and tentacles====
* '''arm circumference''' (AC): AC(I), AC(II), AC(III) and AC(IV) refer to measurements of specific arm pairs
* '''arm diameter''' (AD): AD(I), AD(II), AD(III) and AD(IV) refer to measurements of specific arm pairs
* '''arm length''' (AL): AL(I), AL(II), AL(III) and AL(IV) refer to measurements of specific arm pairs
* '''arm sucker diameter''' (ASD)
* '''carpus length''' (CaL)
* '''club length''' (CL): usually refers to expanded portion at the apex of tentacle
* '''club sucker diameter''' (CSD): usually largest; usually equivalent to LSD
* '''club width''' (CW)
* '''dactylus club length''' (DC)
* '''[[hectocotylus]] length''' (HeL)
* '''longest arm length''' (LAL)
* '''largest sucker diameter''' (LSD): on tentacle club; usually equivalent to CSD
* '''[[Manus (anatomy)|manus]] length''' (MaL)
* '''tentacle circumference''' (TC): most often of tentacle stalk
* '''tentacle club length''' (TCL)
* '''tentacle diameter''' (TD): most often of tentacle stalk
* '''tentacle length''' (TL)
* '''tentacle sucker diameter''' (TSD): usually largest

====Mantle====
* '''mantle length''' (ML): usually dorsal mantle length unless stated otherwise
* '''dorsal mantle length''' (DML)
* '''ventral mantle length''' (VML)
* '''mantle width''' (MW): usually maximum
* '''mantle thickness''' (MT)
* '''fin length''' (FL)
* '''fin width''' (FW)
* '''tail length''' (TaL)

====Head====
* '''buccal apparatus circumference''' (BAC)
* '''buccal apparatus length''' (BAL)
* '''eye diameter''' (EyD)
* '''eye orbit diameter''' (EyOD)
* '''head circumference''' (HC)
* '''head length''' (HL): most often base of arms to edge of mantle
* '''head width''' (HW)
* '''lower rostral length of [[cephalopod beak|beak]]''' (LRL)
* '''upper rostral length of [[cephalopod beak|beak]]''' (URL)

====Funnel====
* '''[[hyponome|funnel]] opening diameter''' (FuD)
* '''funnel length''' (FuL)
* '''[[Funnel–mantle locking apparatus|funnel cartilage]] length''' (FuCL)
* '''funnel cartilage width''' (FuCW)

====Internal anatomy====
* '''egg diameter''' (ED)
* '''NGL''', [[nidamental gland]] length
* '''PL''', penis length
* '''RaL''', [[radula]] length
* '''RaW''', radula width
* '''[[spermatophore]] length''' (SL)
* '''spermatophore sac length''' (SSL)
* '''[[Ctenidium (mollusc)|gill]] length''' (GiL)
* '''[[Gladius (cephalopod)|gladius]] (pen) length''' (GL)
* '''gladius (pen) width''' (GW)
* '''[[Gladius (cephalopod)|rachis]] length''' (RL)
* '''rachis width''' (RW)

====Historical and nonstandard====
* '''body circumference''' (BC): assumed to mean greatest circumference of mantle unless otherwise specified
* '''body diameter''' (BD): assumed to mean greatest diameter of mantle
* '''body length''' (BL): usually equivalent to mantle length, as head length is often given separately
* '''"entire" length''' (EL): end of tentacle(s), often stretched, to posterior tip of tail; in contrast to WL, measured from end of ''arms'' to posterior tip of tail
* '''"whole" length''' (WL): end of arms, often damaged, to posterior tip of tail; in contrast to EL, measured from end of ''tentacles'' to posterior tip of tail-->
[[File:Extracted giant squid beak.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Giant squid beak and associated muscles with hand for scale]]

===Methods of size determination===
In contrast to the vast majority of living cephalopods, which are wholly soft-bodied, size determination of the [[#Shell diameter|few surviving shelled species]] (in terms of shell diameter) is comparatively straightforward and can be accomplished with a high level of precision. Whatever the type of cephalopod, in the absence of whole specimens, size can often be estimated from only partial remains. For example, [[cephalopod beak]]s can be used for mantle length, total length and body mass estimation,<ref>see [[#Clarke1962|Clarke, 1962]]; [[#Wolff1981|Wolff, 1981]]; [[#Wolff1984|1984]]; [[#Grogeretal2000|Gröger ''et al.'', 2000]]; [[#Staudingeretal2009|Staudinger ''et al.'', 2009]]; [[#Potieretal2011|Potier ''et al.'', 2011]]</ref> and this method has notably been used to estimate the maximum size of the [[colossal squid]]. The [[lower rostral length]] (LRL) of the beak is often used for this purpose. The rostral length of the lower and upper beaks is the standard measure of beak size in [[Decapodiformes]]; [[hood length]] is preferred for [[Octopodiformes]].<ref>[[#Clarke1986|Clarke, 1986:11]]</ref>

Mantle length has been estimated from video recordings of squid in the wild.<ref>[[#Zeidberg2004|Zeidberg, 2004:4195]]; [[#Phillips2004|Phillips, 2004:ii]]</ref>
<!--==Spatial and temporal trends==
===Bathymetric===
*[[Abyssal gigantism]] ([[#Carnall2017|Carnall, 2017]])
===Latitudinal===
===Evolutionary===
*[[Cope's rule]]; phyletic gigantism
*([[#Kummel1948|Kummel, 1948]]; [[#Newell1949|Newell, 1949]]; [[#TeichertKummel1960|Teichert & Kummel, 1960:6]]; [[#Hallam1975|Hallam, 1975]]; [[#HewittHurst1977|Hewitt & Hurst, 1977]]; [[#Kennedy1977|Kennedy, 1977]]; [[#Mignotetal1993|Mignot ''et al.'', 1993]]; [[#Mangeretal1999|Manger ''et al.'', 1999]]; [[#Dommerguesetal2002|Dommergues ''et al.'', 2002]]; [[#Landmanetal2003|Landman ''et al.'', 2003]]; [[#Klugetal2015|Klug ''et al.'', 2015]]; [[#Smithetal2016|Smith ''et al.'', 2016]]; [[#Bertetal2017|Bert ''et al.'', 2017]]; [[#PohleKlug2017|Pohle & Klug, 2017]])
*dwarfism; miniaturisation
*[[Lilliput effect]] ([[#MortenTwitchett2009|Morten & Twitchett, 2009]]; [[#Monnetetal2015|Monnet ''et al.'', 2015]])
*"the largest Paleozoic members of major marine clades (Cephalopoda, Trilobita, Eurypterida and Placodermi) lived before the Late Paleozoic oxygen peak" ([[#Vermeij2016|Vermeij, 2016]])

==Determinants of size==
===Environmental===
====Temperature====
*inversely proportional to latitude and depth
*[[Abyssal gigantism]] ([[#Carnall2017|Carnall, 2017]])
*Forsythe hypothesis ([[#Pecletal2004|Pecl ''et al.'', 2004]])
*Size-at-age variability ([[#Pecletal2004|Pecl ''et al.'', 2004]])
*([[#Reboulet2001|Reboulet, 2001]]; [[#JacksonDomeier2003|Jackson & Domeier, 2003]]; [[#Leporatietal2007|Leporati ''et al.'', 2007]]; [[#Rosaetal2012|Rosa ''et al.'', 2012]])
====Pressure====
*([[#Reboulet2001|Reboulet, 2001]])
====Seasonality====
===Ecological===
====Competition====
====Predation pressure====
*([[#Snyder1998|Snÿder, 1998]]; [[#McClainetal2015|McClain ''et al.'', 2015]])
====Resource availability/Primary productivity====
*[[#Snyder1998|Snÿder, 1998]]
*Size-at-age variability ([[#Pecletal2004|Pecl ''et al.'', 2004]])
====Habitat extent and stability====
*[[oxygen minimum layer]] ([[#Snyder1998|Snÿder, 1998]])
===Ontogenetic===
====Hatchling size====
*Size-at-age variability
*([[#Boletzky1997|Boletzky, 1997]]; [[#Leporatietal2007|Leporati ''et al.'', 2007]])
===Physiological===
*Metabolic demands ([[#McClainetal2015|McClain ''et al.'', 2015]])
*Growth rate ([[#ODorHoar2000|O'Dor & Hoar, 2000]]; [[#GristJackson2007|Grist & Jackson, 2007]]; [[#Guerraetal2010|Guerra ''et al.'', 2010]]; [[#RosaSeibel2010|Rosa & Seibel, 2010]])
===Pathological===
*([[#Mangeretal1999|Manger ''et al.'', 1999]])
===Evolutionary===
*Evolutionary constraints
*([[#Boletzky1997|Boletzky, 1997]]; [[#Boletzky2002|Boletzky, 2002]])

==Allometry==
===Physiological scaling===
*([[#Kroger2003|Kröger, 2003]])

===Hydrodynamic relevance===-->

==Early life stages==
<!--{{multiple image
 | image1 = Thysanoteuthis rhombus egg mass - ZooKeys-222-069-g002-09.jpeg
 | width1 = 197
 | image2 = Thysanoteuthis rhombus egg mass - ZooKeys-222-069-g002-10.jpeg
 | width2 = 250
 | footer = '''Left:''' Closeup of a developing ''[[Thysanoteuthis rhombus]]'' inside an egg<br />'''Right:''' ''Thysanoteuthis rhombus'' egg mass ({{circa}}&nbsp;{{convert|1|m|ft|abbr=on}} in diameter) in the waters between [[Tenerife]] and [[La Gomera]]
}}
===Eggs===
[[Cephalopod egg fossil]]
*Egg size, [[Thorson's rule]] and [[Rass's rule]] ([[#Boletzky1987|Boletzky, 1987]]; [[#Laptikhovsky2006|Laptikhovsky, 2006]]; [[#Laptikhovskyetal2013|Laptikhovsky ''et al.'', 2013]]; [[#Laptikhovskyetal2018|Laptikhovsky ''et al.'', 2018]])
[[File:Idiosepius pygmaeus.png|thumb|250px|left|[[Micro-CT]] image of ''[[Idiosepius pygmaeus]]'' hatchlings, {{circa}}&nbsp;{{convert|2|mm|in|abbr=on}} long]]-->

===Hatchlings===
[[File:Haliphron atlanticus embryos.jpg|thumb|250px|Egg string and embryos of ''[[Haliphron atlanticus]]'', collected north of the [[Cape Verde Islands]]. The eggs measure around {{convert|8|mm|in|abbr=on}} across the long axis.]]
Hatchlings of ''[[Idiosepius thailandicus]]'', possibly the smallest extant cephalopod species at maturity, have a [[Mantle (mollusc)|mantle]] length of around {{convert|1|mm|in|abbr=on}}.<ref>[[#Nabhitabhata1998|Nabhitabhata, 1998:32]]</ref> The closely related ''[[Idiosepius pygmaeus]]'' weighs only {{convert|0.00033|g|oz|abbr=on}} upon hatching and increases in weight to {{convert|0.175|g|oz|abbr=on}} as it reaches maturity in 50 days.<ref name=":2"/> Even smaller are the hatchlings of the commercially important ''[[Illex illecebrosus]]'', with a mass of {{convert|0.00015|g|oz|abbr=on}}.<ref>[[#ODoretal1986|O'Dor ''et al.'', 1986:59]]; [[#WoodODor2000|Wood & O'Dor, 2000:93]]</ref> Hatchlings of the [[giant Pacific octopus]] (''Enteroctopus dofleini'')—one of the two largest octopus species—weigh {{convert|0.0253|g|oz|abbr=on}} on average.<ref>[[#CosgroveMcDaniel2009|Cosgrove & McDaniel, 2009:88]]</ref>

At the other extreme are [[nautilus]]es, which upon hatching typically have a shell diameter of {{convert|25|mm|in|0|abbr=on}} or more (depending on the species), the largest hatchling size among extant invertebrates.<ref>[[#Grulke2014|Grulke, 2014:105]]</ref> Hatchlings of ''[[Nautilus belauensis]]'', one of the larger species, are estimated to weigh on the order of {{convert|5.9|g|oz|abbr=on}}{{refn|group=nb|name=hatchlings|[[#WoodODor2000|Wood & O'Dor (2000:93)]] elaborated on this mass estimate as follows:

<blockquote>There are [...] no published weights of hatchling ''[[Nautilus]]'' spp. The weight of a hatchling ''[[Nautilus belauensis|N.&nbsp;belauensis]]'' was estimated using hatchling shell size and a regression analysis of the cubed shell diameter versus the weight of seven young ''N.&nbsp;belauensis'' that weighed <50&nbsp;g [{{convert|50|g|oz|disp=output only}}] [...] in addition to a single hatchling ''[[Nautilus pompilius|N.&nbsp;pompilius]]'' that was weighed for the present study on 24 April 1996 at the [[Waikiki Aquarium]]. The hatchling ''N.&nbsp;pompilius'' weighing 4.33&nbsp;g [{{convert|4.33|g|oz|disp=output only}}], with a maximum shell diameter of 26.25&nbsp;mm [{{convert|26.25|mm|in|disp=output only}}], fit a highly significant correlation [...] between cubed shell diameter and weight, which indicates that a hatchling ''N.&nbsp;belauensis'' with a 30&nbsp;mm [{{convert|30|mm|in|disp=output only}}] shell diameter [...] would weigh approximately 5.9&nbsp;g [{{convert|5.9|g|oz|disp=output only}}].</blockquote>}} and mature at around {{convert|1.2|kg|lb|abbr=on}} after almost 4000 days, or around 11 years.<ref name=":2"/>

[[File:Idiosepius paradoxus himeika06.JPG|thumb|220px|left|''[[Idiosepius paradoxus]]'', a tiny species of squid that grows to {{convert|16|mm|in|abbr=on}} in mantle length]]

==Smallest adult size==
The smallest adult size among living cephalopods is attained by the so-called pygmy squids, ''[[Idiosepius]]'',<ref>{{cite web |url=https://reefs.com/2017/10/06/meet-worlds-smallest-weirdest-squid-idiosepius/ |title=Meet The World's Smallest & Weirdest Squid, ''Idiosepius'' |author=Rowlett, Joe |publisher=Reefs.com |access-date=19 January 2019|date=2017-10-06 }}</ref> and certain diminutive species of the genus ''[[Octopus (genus)|Octopus]]'', both of which weigh less than {{convert|1|g|oz}} at maturity.<ref>[[#Boletzky2003|Boletzky, 2003:19]]</ref> ''[[Idiosepius thailandicus]]'' is perhaps the smallest of all, with females averaging {{convert|10.4|mm|in|abbr=on}} in mantle length and males {{convert|5.9|mm|in|abbr=on}}.<ref name=":3"/> Average wet weights are around {{convert|0.20|and|0.02|g|oz|abbr=on}}, respectively.<ref name=":3"/>

Other tiny species include members of the [[bobtail squid]] family [[Sepiolidae]]; the [[Myopsina|myopsid]] squid genera ''[[Australiteuthis]]'' and ''[[Pickfordiateuthis]]''; the [[Oegopsina|oegopsid]] squid genera ''[[Abralia]]'' and ''[[Abraliopsis]]''; the pygmy cuttlefish ''[[Sepia pulchra]]''; and the ram's horn squid, ''[[Spirula spirula]]''.

===Male dwarfism===

[[File:Tremoctopus violaceus5 (rotated).jpg|thumb|250px|Adult male ''[[Tremoctopus violaceus]]'' with large [[hectocotylus]] (arm modified for [[spermatophore]] transfer)]]
The octopod superfamily [[Argonautoidea]] is characterised by markedly dwarfed males.<ref>[[#Boletzky1999|Boletzky, 1999:24]]; [[#Boletzky2003|2003:20]]; [[#Normanetal2002|Norman ''et al.'', 2002:733]]</ref> The four extant genera of the group are ''[[Argonaut (animal)|Argonauta]]'', ''[[Haliphron]]'', ''[[Ocythoe]]'', and ''[[Tremoctopus]]'', all of which are exclusively [[pelagic]]. The greatest disparity in the size of the sexes is seen in the [[blanket octopus]]es of the genus ''Tremoctopus''. [[#Normanetal2002|Norman ''et al.'' (2002)]] reported a fully mature male ''[[Tremoctopus violaceus]]'' measuring {{convert|2.4|cm|in|abbr=on}} in total length and weighing a mere {{convert|0.25|g|oz|abbr=on}}. By comparison, the large females of this species reach total lengths of {{convert|2|m|ft|abbr=on}} and probably some {{convert|10|kg|lb|abbr=on}} in weight. This is the most extreme [[sexual size dimorphism]] known among non-microscopic animals,{{refn|group=nb|name=SSD|[[#Normanetal2002|Norman ''et al.'' (2002:733)]] wrote: "The most extreme examples of sexual size dimorphism come from marine or parasitic taxa where females are difficult to locate ([[#Ghiselin1974|Ghiselin 1974]])."}} with mature females being at least 10,000 times heavier than males, and likely up to 40,000 times heavier.<ref>[[#Normanetal2002|Norman ''et al.'', 2002:733]]; [[#Fairbairn2007|Fairbairn, 2007:3]]</ref> The related genera ''Argonauta'' and ''Ocythoe'' have similarly small males, but the females are not nearly as large as those of ''Tremoctopus'', and the size dimorphism is therefore less pronounced. The females of the fourth argonautoid genus, ''Haliphron'', are the largest of all up to length of {{convert|abbr=on|3.5|m}} and mass of {{convert|abbr=on|75|kg}} (and possibly the [[#Mass 2|largest octopuses of any kind]]), but the males are also much larger, at up to {{convert|30|cm|in|abbr=on}}. So, the size dimorphism is least pronounced of all.<ref>[[#Normanetal2002|Norman ''et al.'', 2002:733]]</ref>

===Extinct taxa===

Numerous species of so-called micromorphic ammonites are known.<ref>see [[#KennedyCobban1990|Kennedy & Cobban, 1990]]</ref> <!--Fossils that appear to be of dwarf ammonites may actually represent microconches of much larger specimens.<ref>[[#WrightKennedy1980|Wright & Kennedy, 1980:65]]</ref>--> ''[[Maximites]]'' from the [[Upper Carboniferous]] is the smallest known ammonoid. Adult specimens reached only {{cvt|10|mm|in}} in shell diameter.<ref>{{cite web|author=Nishiguchi, M.K., R. Mapes|date=2008|url= https://bobtailsquid.ink/wp-content/uploads/2020/05/Nish2008_Book_PhylEvolMolusca_Cephlopoda.pdf|title=Cephalopoda|work=University of California Press|pages=163–199}}</ref>

==Maximum size==
===Scientifically validated records===
[[File:Colossal squid caught in February 2007.jpg|thumb|left|The largest cephalopod specimen ever recorded: a {{convert|495|kg|lb|abbr=on}} [[colossal squid]]]]
[[Squid]]s are the largest living cephalopods in terms of each of [[mantle (mollusc)|mantle]] length, total length, and mass, with the largest species by at least two of these measures being the [[colossal squid]], ''Mesonychoteuthis hamiltoni''. Reaching an estimated {{convert|3|m|ft|abbr=on}} in mantle length and {{convert|10|m|ft|abbr=on}} in total length, and weighing as much as {{convert|495|kg|lb|abbr=on}}, this species is also the largest of all [[extant taxon|extant]] [[invertebrate]]s.<ref>[[#RosaSeibel2010|Rosa & Seibel, 2010]]; [[#McClainetal2015|McClain ''et al.'', 2015]]; [[#Rosaetal2017|Rosa ''et al.'', 2017]]</ref> The only other squid that approaches these dimensions is the [[giant squid]] of the genus ''Architeuthis'', with females up to {{convert|275|kg|lb|abbr=on}}, {{convert|2.4|m|ft|abbr=on}} in mantle length, and possibly as much as {{convert|15|m|ft|abbr=on}} in total length, making it likely the longest of all cephalopods.<ref name=":10">[[#McClainetal2015|McClain ''et al.'', 2015]]</ref> The two largest [[octopus]] species—''[[Enteroctopus dofleini]]'' and ''[[Haliphron atlanticus]]''—can both exceed {{convert|70|kg|lb|abbr=on}}, and the former has a maximum total length of more than {{convert|6|m|ft|abbr=on}}. [[Cirrina|Cirrate (finned) octopods]] can also reach a large size, with the largest captured specimen likely being a ''[[Cirrothauma magna]]'' of {{convert|1.7|m|ft|abbr=on}} total length and {{convert|33|cm|in|abbr=on}} mantle length,<ref>[[#Collinsetal2001|Collins ''et al.'', 2001]]; [[#CollinsVillanueva2006|Collins & Villanueva, 2006:294]]</ref> though observations from submersibles suggest that members of this group can exceed {{convert|4|m|ft|abbr=on}} in total length.<ref>[[#Voss1988|Voss, 1988]]; [[#Vecchioneetal2008|Vecchione ''et al.'', 2008]]</ref>

Members of the other cephalopod groups are substantially smaller, although the largest [[cuttlefish]] can exceed {{convert|10|kg|lb|abbr=on}} in weight and {{convert|50|cm|ft|abbr=on}} in mantle length. Cephalopods of comparable size to the largest present day squid are known from fossil remains, including enormous examples of [[ammonoid]]s, [[belemnoid]]s, [[nautiloid]]s, [[orthoceratoid]]s, [[teuthid]]s, and [[vampyromorphid]]s.<ref>see [[#TeichertKummel1960|Teichert & Kummel, 1960]]; [[#Stevens1988|Stevens, 1988]]; [[#Eyden2003b|Eyden, 2003b]]; [[#Larson2010|Larson, 2010]]; [[#Ibaetal2015|Iba ''et al.'', 2015]]</ref>

====Colossal squid (''Mesonychoteuthis hamiltoni'')====
[[File:Mesonychoteuthis hamiltoni beak.jpg|thumb|left|Beak of a colossal squid, which has the largest beak among living cephalopods]]
Though a substantial number of [[colossal squid]] (''Mesonychoteuthis hamiltoni'') [[List of colossal squid specimens and sightings|remains]] have been recorded ([[#Xavieretal1999|Xavier ''et al.'', 1999]] collated 188 geographical positions for whole or partial specimens caught by commercial and scientific fisheries), very few adult or subadult animals have ever been documented, making it difficult to estimate the maximum size of the species. [[#McClainetal2015|McClain ''et al.'' (2015)]] stated that only 12 "complete" specimens were known.
The largest known complete specimen of the colossal squid was a mature female captured in the [[Ross Sea]] in February 2007. Its weight was initially estimated at {{convert|450|kg|lb|abbr=on}}, its mantle length at {{convert|4|m|ft|abbr=on}}, and its total length at {{convert|8|–|10|m|ft|abbr=on}}.<ref>[[#OSheaBolstad2008|O'Shea & Bolstad, 2008]]; [[#howbig|[Anonymous], {{abbr|N.d.|No date}}]]</ref> Once completely thawed the specimen was found to weigh {{convert|495|kg|lb|abbr=on}}, but to measure only {{convert|2.5|m|ft|abbr=on}} in mantle length and {{convert|4.2|m|ft|abbr=on}} in total length.<ref name=":0">[[#howbig|[Anonymous], {{abbr|N.d.|No date}}]]</ref> It is likely that the specimen, and particularly its tentacles, shrank considerably ''post mortem'' as a result of dehydration, having been kept in a freezer for 14 months. (As reported by the [[Museum of New Zealand Te Papa Tongarewa]], specimens of ''[[Nototodarus sloanii]]'', the New Zealand arrow squid, can shrink by as much as 22% when dehydrated with alcohol solutions.<ref name=":0"/>) The colossal squid specimen contracted by a further 5% after several years in preservative fluid (first [[formalin]] and later [[propylene glycol]]).<ref>[[#Lovis2011|Lovis, 2011]]</ref> The fins of the 2007 Ross Sea specimen measured around {{convert|1.2|m|ft|abbr=on}} across<!--see embedded video where width is measured at 1.21 m; measurements given in text ("1,183 millimetres long and 982 millimetres wide") appear to have been reversed--> and it had a mantle width of {{convert|98.2|cm|ft|abbr=on}}.<ref>[[#body|[Anonymous], {{abbr|N.d.|No date}}]]</ref> The arms ranged in length from {{convert|0.85|to|1.15|m|ft|abbr=on}}, while the two tentacles were around {{convert|2.1|m|ft|abbr=on}} long<!--TL should be >4.6 m-->.<ref>[[#limbs|[Anonymous], {{abbr|N.d.|No date}}]]</ref>
[[File:Colossal squid at Te Papa.jpg|thumb|The 2007 Ross Sea specimen as it appears now, on display at the [[Museum of New Zealand Te Papa Tongarewa]]]]
Beaks recovered from sperm whale stomachs indicate the existence of animals surpassing even the 2007 Ross Sea specimen. That specimen had a [[lower rostral length]] (LRL) of {{convert|42.5|mm|in|abbr=on}} and weighed {{convert|495|kg|lb|abbr=on}},<ref name=":1">[[#beak|[Anonymous], {{abbr|N.d.|No date}}]]</ref> where as the {{convert|300|kg|lb|abbr=on}} submature female from 2003 had a LRL of {{convert|37|mm|in|abbr=on}}.<ref>[[#OShea2003c|O'Shea, 2003c]]</ref> By comparison, the largest known colossal squid beak from a sperm whale stomach measured {{convert|49|mm|in|abbr=on}} in LRL.<ref name=":8"/> Though the number of large colossal squid specimens known to science is too small to get a good idea of the relationship between beak size and overall body size, a beak of such enormity indicates a truly massive animal weighing perhaps as much as {{convert|600|–|700|kg|lb|abbr=on}}.<ref name=":1"/> However, the [[allometry|scaling relationship]] for this species shows considerable latitude, as demonstrated by a beak of {{convert|40|mm|in|abbr=on}} LRL extracted from an animal weighing only {{convert|160|kg|lb|abbr=on}}.<ref name=":1"/>

====Giant squid (''Architeuthis dux'')====
[[File:Logy bay giant squid 1873.png|thumb|left|A giant squid specimen; the extremely long feeding tentacles of the giant squid make it the longest known cephalopod, past or present.]]
The maximum size of the [[giant squid]] (''Architeuthis dux'') has long been a subject of both popular debate and academic inquiry.<ref>[[#Ellis1998b|Ellis, 1998b]]; [[#Paxton2016a|Paxton, 2016a]]; [[#Bittel2016|Bittel, 2016]]; [[#Romanovetal2017|Romanov ''et al.'', 2017]]</ref> Unlike the colossal squid, the giant squid is known from a substantial number of mature specimens. The [[List of giant squid specimens and sightings|total number of recorded specimens]] (across all developmental stages) approaches a thousand, with approximately 700 documented {{as of|2015|lc=y}}, of which around 460 had been measured in some way.<ref name=":11">[[#Paxton2016a|Paxton, 2016a]]</ref> This number has since increased substantially, with 57 specimens recorded from Japanese waters during an exceptional 15-month period between 2014 and 2015.<ref name=":13">[[#Kuboderaetal2016|Kubodera ''et al.'', 2016]]</ref>
[[File:Giant squid melb aquarium03.jpg|thumb|A giant squid measuring {{convert|7|m|ft|abbr=on}} in total length and weighing {{convert|250|kg|lb|abbr=on}} displayed in a {{convert|3.5|tonne|lb|adj=on}} block of ice at the [[Melbourne Aquarium]]<ref>see [[#Holroyd2005|Holroyd, 2005]]</ref>]]
Based on a 40-year data set of more than 50 giant squid specimens, [[#RoperShea2013|Roper & Shea (2013:114)]] suggest an average total length at maturity of {{convert|11|m|ft|abbr=on}} and a "rarely encountered maximum length" of {{convert|14|–|15|m|ft|abbr=on}}. Of the nearly 100 specimens examined by [[Clyde Roper]], the largest was "{{convert|46|ft|m}} long".<ref>[[#CerulloRoper2012|Cerullo & Roper, 2012:22]]</ref> [[#OSheaBolstad2008|O'Shea & Bolstad (2008)]] give a maximum total length of {{convert|13|m|ft|abbr=on}} for females based on the examination of more than 130 specimens, measured ''post mortem'' and relaxed, as well as beaks recovered from [[sperm whale]]s (which do not exceed the size of those found in the largest complete specimens). [[Steve O'Shea]] estimated the maximum total length for males at {{convert|10|m|ft|abbr=on}}.<ref name=":14">[[#OShea2003a|O'Shea, 2003a]]</ref> Older records of {{convert|18|m|ft|abbr=on}} or more were likely exaggerated by stretching of the long [[cephalopod limb|feeding tentacles]] or resulted from inadequate measurement methods such as pacing.<ref name=":9">[[#OSheaBolstad2008|O'Shea & Bolstad, 2008]]; [[#RoperShea2013|Roper & Shea, 2013:113]]</ref> O'Shea has stated that, given the available evidence, the highest [[upper bound]] he would consider plausible for the giant squid's total length would be {{convert|15|m|ft|abbr=on}}, and that the likelihood that there exist 20-metre giant squid is "so exceedingly remote that you couldn't justify the effort in writing about it".<ref name=":16">[[#Bittel2016|Bittel, 2016]]</ref>

Including the head and [[cephalopod limb|arms]] but excluding the [[cephalopod limb|tentacles]] (standard length, SL), the species very rarely exceeds {{convert|5|m|ft|abbr=on}} according to [[#OSheaBolstad2008|O'Shea & Bolstad (2008)]]. [[#Paxton2016a|Paxton (2016a)]] considers {{convert|9.45|m|ft|abbr=on}} to be the greatest reliably measured SL, based on a specimen reported by [[#Verrill1880a|Verrill (1880a:192)]], and considers specimens of {{convert|10|m|ft|abbr=on}} SL or more to be "very probable", but these conclusions have been criticised by giant squid experts.<ref name=":15">[[#Greshko2016|Greshko, 2016]]</ref> [[#OShea2003a|O'Shea (2003a)]] put the maximum weight of female giant squid at {{convert|275|kg|lb|abbr=on}}, based on the examination of some 105 specimens as well as beaks recovered from [[sperm whale]]s (which do not exceed the size of those found in the largest complete specimens). Giant squid are [[sexual dimorphism|sexually size dimorphic]], with the maximum weight for males estimated at {{convert|150|kg|lb|abbr=on}},<ref name=":14"/> though heavier specimens have occasionally been reported (such as a {{convert|190|kg|lb|abbr=on}} specimen<ref>[[#Deagleetal2005|Deagle ''et al.'', 2005]]</ref> and a {{convert|163|kg|lb|abbr=on}} specimen<ref>[[#Hofilena2014|Hofilena, 2014]]</ref>). [[#RoperJereb2010a|Roper & Jereb (2010a:121)]] give a maximum weight of up to {{convert|500|kg|lb|abbr=on}}, and "possibly greater". Discredited weights of as much as a [[tonne]] ({{convert|1|tonne|lb|disp=output only}}) or more are not uncommon in older literature (see [[#Mass estimates|below]]).<ref name=":8"/>

====Other squid taxa====
[[File:Taningia danae (160 cm ML).jpg|thumb|Dana octopus squid]]
The third-heaviest extant squid species is ''[[Taningia danae]]'', also known as the Dana octopus squid. The largest well documented specimen is a 160&nbsp;cm ML mature female reported by [[#RoperVecchione1993|Roper & Vecchione (1993)]] from the North Atlantic. The original paper gave the mass of this specimen as {{convert|61.4|kg|lb|abbr=on}}, but according to [[#RoperJereb2010h|Roper & Jereb (2010h:266)]] this figure is wrong and stems from a typographical error, the correct mass being {{convert|161.4|kg|lb|abbr=on}}. [[#RoperVecchione1993|Roper & Vecchione (1993)]] were however consistent in their use of the 61.4&nbsp;kg figure. Another similarly large specimen—a female weighing {{convert|124|kg|lb|abbr=on}}—was reported from northern Spanish waters by [[#Gonzalezetal2003|González ''et al.'' (2003:297)]] (see also initial reports<ref>[[#Anonymous2000|[Anonymous], 2000]]; [[#Wong2000|Wong, 2000]]</ref>). In July 2010, a [[sperm whale]] was photographed off the [[Azores|Azorean]] island of [[Faial Island|Faial]] with a large squid—likely ''T.&nbsp;danae''—in its mouth. The specimen's maximum width, from fin tip to fin tip, was estimated at {{convert|1.5|–|2|m|ft|abbr=on}}; this would approximate its mantle length.<ref>[[#Vecchioneetal2010|Vecchione ''et al.'', 2010]]</ref><!--looks much smaller if whale is only 6–7 m long-->
[[File:Moroteuthis robusta bronco.jpg|thumb|left|220px|''[[Onykia robusta]]'' grows to a mantle length of at least {{convert|2|m|ft|abbr=on}}]]
''[[Onykia robusta]]'', previously known as ''Moroteuthis robusta''<ref>see [[#Bolstad2008|Bolstad, 2008]]; [[#Bolstad2010|2010]]</ref> and sometimes called the robust clubhook squid, has a mantle length of up to {{convert|200|cm|ft|abbr=on}}.<ref>[[#Norman2000|Norman, 2000:174]]; [[#Bolstad2008|Bolstad, 2008:107]]; [[#Okutani2015b|Okutani, 2015b]]</ref> Some older records exceed this, such as the {{convert|91.5|in|cm|abbr=on}} ML reported by [[#Verrill1876|Verrill (1876:237)]] from a specimen with a total length of {{convert|14|ft|m|abbr=on}} (excluding the ends of the tentacles, which had been destroyed). [[#Nesis1987|Nesis (1987:192)]] likewise gave a maximum mantle length of {{convert|230|cm|ft|abbr=on}}, but [[#RoperJereb2010i|Roper & Jereb (2010i:364)]] wrote that "this old record might be in error", with the species commonly growing to {{convert|160|cm|ft|abbr=on}} ML. [[#GlaubrechtSalcedo-Vargas2004|Glaubrecht & Salcedo-Vargas (2004:66)]] provided a maximum total length of {{convert|4|–|6|m|ft|abbr=on}}. Literature sources give a maximum weight of {{convert|50|kg|lb|abbr=on}}.<ref>[[#Roperetal1984|Roper ''et al.'', 1984]]; [[#RoperJereb2010i|Roper & Jereb, 2010i:364]]; [[#Okutani2015b|Okutani, 2015b]]</ref> There exist numerous published records of large individuals of this species.<ref>see [[#Dall1873|Dall, 1873]]; [[#Verrill1876|Verrill, 1876]]; [[#Phillips1933|Phillips, 1933]]; [[#Croker1934|Croker, 1934]]; [[#Phillips1961|Phillips, 1961]]; [[#Smith1963|Smith, 1963]]</ref>
[[File:Montemar calamar.png|thumb|Fisherman taking a [[Humboldt squid]] off the coast of [[Chile]]. This species is the largest squid commonly encountered by humans.<ref>[[#Hoff2003|Hoff, 2003:90]]</ref>]]
The [[Humboldt squid]] (''Dosidicus gigas''), also known as the 'jumbo squid', grows to a maximum mantle length of at least {{convert|120|cm|ft|abbr=on}},<ref>[[#Nigmatullinetal2001|Nigmatullin ''et al.'', 2001]]; [[#Roperetal2010b|Roper ''et al.'', 2010b:301]]</ref> if not {{convert|150|cm|ft|abbr=on}}.<ref>[[#Wormuth1976|Wormuth, 1976:38]]; [[#Norman2000|Norman, 2000:165]]; [[#GlaubrechtSalcedo-Vargas2004|Glaubrecht & Salcedo-Vargas, 2004:54]]</ref> The largest animals are found off the western coast of [[South America]]; northern populations reach {{convert|100|cm|ft|abbr=on}} ML, and in general {{convert|50|–|80|cm|ft|abbr=on}} ML is more typical for the species.<ref name=":17">[[#Roperetal2010b|Roper ''et al.'', 2010b:301]]</ref> Southern populations may have a total length approaching {{convert|2.5|m|ft|abbr=on}},<ref name=":17"/> and possibly up to {{convert|12|ft|m|order=flip|abbr=on}}.<ref>[[#Clarke1966|Clarke, 1966:117]]; [[#GlaubrechtSalcedo-Vargas2004|Glaubrecht & Salcedo-Vargas, 2004:59]]</ref> Again, specimens from the [[northern hemisphere]] are much smaller, with those off the [[California]]n coast reaching total lengths of less than {{convert|1.7|m|ft|abbr=on}}.<ref>[[#GlaubrechtSalcedo-Vargas2004|Glaubrecht & Salcedo-Vargas, 2004:59]]</ref> The Humboldt squid commonly attains a weight of around {{convert|20|–|30|kg|lb|abbr=on}}<ref name=":17"/> and can reach a maximum of {{convert|50|kg|lb|abbr=on}}.<ref>[[#Nigmatullinetal2001|Nigmatullin ''et al.'', 2001:10]]; [[#Roperetal2010b|Roper ''et al.'', 2010b:301]]</ref> There are anecdotal reports of much larger individual animals, including from diver [[Scott Cassell]], who has dived with Humboldt squid over 300 times (reportedly more than any other person).<ref name=":18">[[#Cassell2005|Cassell, 2005]]</ref>{{refn|group=nb|name=Scar|In particular, [[Scott Cassell]] mentioned a giant [[Humboldt squid]] he named 'Scar' (after the scars on its mantle), whose size he described thus:

<blockquote>Scar is over seven feet [{{convert|7|ft|m|abbr=on|disp=output only}}] in length, larger than anyone has ever proven. His body was 3 feet [{{convert|3|ft|m|abbr=on|sigfig=1|disp=output only}}] thick (He's too big to put my arms around him) and I estimated he weight {{sic}} between 230 and 250 pounds [{{convert|230|–|250|lb|kg|abbr=on|disp=output only}}].<ref name=":18"/></blockquote>}}

''[[Kondakovia longimana]]'', sometimes known as the giant warty squid, is a little known species with a circum-[[Antarctic]] distribution in the [[Southern Ocean]]. The largest complete specimen, found floating at the surface off the [[South Orkney Islands]], had a mantle length of {{convert|108|cm|ft|abbr=on}},<ref name=":19">[[#LynnesRodhouse2002|Lynnes & Rodhouse, 2002:1087]]; see also [[#Carrington2000|Carrington, 2000]]</ref> but a damaged female specimen with an estimated mantle length of around {{convert|150|cm|ft|abbr=on}} is known.<ref>[[#Bolstad2008|Bolstad, 2008:171]]</ref> The largest complete specimen had a wet weight of {{convert|29|kg|lb|abbr=on}}.<ref name=":19"/> The species' maximum weight has been estimated at {{convert|50|kg|lb|abbr=on}}.<ref>[[#GuerraSegonzac2014|Guerra & Segonzac, 2014:65]]</ref>

====Largest octopodes====
[[File:Enteroctopus dolfeini.jpg|thumb|left|The giant Pacific octopus is one of the two largest octopus species]]
The [[giant Pacific octopus]] (''Enteroctopus dofleini'') grows to more than {{convert|6.1|m|ft|abbr=on}} in total length<ref>[[#Cosgrove1987|Cosgrove, 1987]]</ref> and at least {{convert|60|cm|ft|abbr=on}} in mantle length.<ref>[[#Norman2000|Norman, 2000:214]]; [[#Normanetal2014|Norman ''et al.'', 2014:124]]</ref> [[#Cosgrove1987|Cosgrove (1987)]] and [[#CosgroveMcDaniel2009|Cosgrove & McDaniel (2009:69)]] gave a maximum confirmed weight of {{convert|71|kg|lb|abbr=on}} for a live specimen collected in the mid-1960s.<ref name=":10"/> [[#Normanetal2014|Norman ''et al.'' (2014:124)]] accept a maximum weight of at least {{convert|180|kg|lb|abbr=on}}, which approximates the {{convert|182.3|kg|lb|abbr=on}} reported for a specimen caught off [[Santa Barbara, California|Santa Barbara]], [[California]], in 1945, of which photographic evidence survives.<ref name=":20">[[#CosgroveMcDaniel2009|Cosgrove & McDaniel, 2009:67–69]]</ref> No specimens approaching this size have been reported since the middle of the 20th century, with recent specimens very rarely exceeding {{convert|50|kg|lb|abbr=on}}.<ref name=":21">[[#CosgroveMcDaniel2009|Cosgrove & McDaniel, 2009:71]]</ref> It is possible that the maximum size of the species has decreased over this period, perhaps due to [[bioaccumulation]] of [[toxicant]]s (see [[#Possible diminution in size|below]]).<ref>[[#Anderson2003|Anderson, 2003:3]]; [[#CosgroveMcDaniel2009|Cosgrove & McDaniel, 2009:71]]; [[#Yong2015|Yong, 2015]]</ref>

In 2002, a giant specimen of ''[[Haliphron atlanticus]]'', the seven-arm octopus, was caught by fishermen trawling at a depth of {{convert|920|m|ft|abbr=on}} off the eastern [[Chatham Rise]], [[New Zealand]]. This specimen, the largest of this species and possibly of all octopuses, was the first validated record of ''Haliphron'' from the [[South Pacific Ocean|South Pacific]]. It had a mantle length of {{convert|0.69|m|ft|abbr=on}}, a total length of {{convert|2.90|m|ft|abbr=on}}, and a weight of {{convert|61.0|kg|lb|abbr=on}}, although it was incomplete.<ref>[[#OShea2002|O'Shea, 2002:1]]; [[#OShea2004a|2004a:9]]; [[#Finn2014a|Finn, 2014a:227]]</ref> The total length of the specimen, when complete, has been estimated at {{convert|4|m|ft|abbr=on}}, and its weight at {{convert|75|kg|lb|abbr=on}}.<ref>[[#OShea2004a|O'Shea, 2004a:9]]</ref>

===Extinct taxa===
[[File:Parapuzosia seppenradensis (Plate II).jpg|thumb|The largest known specimen of ''[[Parapuzosia seppenradensis]]'', with its describing author, [[Hermann Landois]], who reconstructed its missing living chamber with a combination of wire frame and paper.<ref>[[#Landois1895|Landois, 1895:108]]</ref> Landois assumed that the living chamber constituted one-fourth of the outer [[whorl (mollusc)|whorl]], but [[#TeichertKummel1960|Teichert & Kummel (1960:6)]] estimated that it continued for three-fourths to one full whorl, which would give an original shell diameter of around {{convert|3.5|m|ft|abbr=on}}.]]
Certain extinct cephalopods rivalled or even exceeded the size of the largest living species.<ref>[[#Carnall2017|Carnall, 2017]]</ref> In particular, the subclass [[Ammonoidea]] is known to have included a considerable number of species that may be considered "giant" (defined by [[#Stevens1988|Stevens, 1988]] as those exceeding {{convert|1|m|ft|abbr=on}} in shell diameter). The largest confirmed [[ammonite]], a specimen of ''[[Parapuzosia seppenradensis]]'' discovered in a [[Germany|German]] quarry in 1895, measures {{convert|1.742|m|ft|abbr=on}} in diameter,<ref>[[#KennedyKaplan1995|Kennedy & Kaplan, 1995:21]]</ref> though its [[living chamber]] is largely missing. The diameter of the complete shell has been estimated at {{convert|2.55|m|ft|abbr=on}}, assuming the living chamber took up one-fourth of the outer [[whorl (mollusc)|whorl]].<ref>[[#Landois1895|Landois, 1895:100]]</ref> [[#TeichertKummel1960|Teichert & Kummel (1960:6)]] suggested an even larger original shell diameter of around {{convert|3.5|m|ft|abbr=on}} for this specimen, assuming the body chamber extended for three-fourths to one full whorl. In 1971 a portion of an ammonite possibly surpassing this specimen was reportedly found in a [[brickyard]] in [[Bottrop]], western Germany.<ref>[[#Beer2015|Beer, 2015]]</ref> A specimen found by Jim Rockwood, from the [[Late Triassic]] near [[Williston Lake]], [[British Columbia]], was said to measure more than {{convert|8|ft|m|abbr=on}} across, but was later determined to be a [[concretion]].<ref>[[#concretion|[Anonymous], {{abbr|N.d.|No date}}]]; [[#Anonymous2008|[Anonymous], 2008]]</ref>
[[File:Enchoteuthis reconstruction.png|thumb|left|Reconstructions of the [[holotype]] (FHSM 13049) and largest specimen (NDGS 241) of ''[[Enchoteuthis melanae]]'', based on ''[[Muensterella]]'' and ''[[Dosidicus]]'']]
[[Heteromorph ammonite]]s are known to have exceeded {{convert|1|m|ft|abbr=on}} in length also, but since their shells were uncoiled to varying degrees, they were overall much smaller than the largest non-heteromorphs. The greatest lengths of all were reached by the [[orthocone]]s of [[Endocerida|endocerid]] [[nautiloid]]s such as ''[[Endoceras]]'', which may have exceeded {{convert|8|m|ft|abbr=on}}, although their maximum size is uncertain; while the largest well documented endocerid fossil is likely the 3-metre-long ({{convert|3|m|ft|disp=output only}}) shell fragment housed at the [[Museum of Comparative Zoology]], [[Harvard University]], there are published reports of even larger specimens. [[#Teichert1927|Teichert (1927)]] mentioned specimens up to {{convert|5|m|ft|abbr=on}} long from the [[Middle Ordovician]] [[limestone]] of [[Estonia]]<ref>[[#TeichertKummel1960|Teichert & Kummel, 1960:2]]</ref> and [[#Frey1995|Frey (1995:72)]] gave a maximum shell length of {{convert|6|m|ft|abbr=on}} for the group. On the subject of endocerid size, nautiloid specialist [[Rousseau H. Flower]] wrote:

<blockquote>They are not all large, by any means, but specimens twelve feet [{{convert|12|ft|m|disp=output only}}] in length have been collected, and fragments of greater diameter indicate a much greater maximum length. I am not wholly inclined to discredit a report of an endoceroid found in a quarry near [[Watertown, New York|Watertown New York]], which was measured before it was broken up and found to attain a length of {{convert|30|ft|m|disp=sqbr}}.<ref>[[#Flower1955|Flower, 1955:329]]</ref></blockquote>

However, the uncoiled length of the largest ammonites far exceeds that of even these giant endocerids. ''[[Parapuzosia seppenradensis]]'', the largest known ammonite species, had an estimated maximum unrolled shell length of around {{convert|60|ft|m|order=flip|abbr=on}}. It was also possibly the heaviest of all known cephalopods, past or present, with an estimated live mass of {{convert|1456|kg|lb|abbr=on}}, of which the shell would constitute 705&nbsp;kg.<ref>[[#Landois1898|Landois, 1898:27]]</ref> By comparison, the largest endocerids may have weighed around {{convert|1000|kg|lb|abbr=on}}.<ref name=":5"/> In terms of mass, these are the largest known [[invertebrate]]s that have ever lived,<ref>[[#Grulke2014|Grulke, 2014:124]]</ref> though perhaps still second to the largest living cephalopods when considering [[Tissue (biology)|tissue mass]] alone, since in shell-bearing species the vast majority of the living tissue is restricted to the [[body chamber]], which occupies only a fraction of the internal shell volume.<ref name=":6"/> They might also be the largest—or at least longest—shell-bearing animals that have ever lived.<ref name=":6"/>{{refn|group=nb|name=largestshell|Depending on how one defines 'shell-bearing', other extinct contenders could include the aquatic turtles ''[[Archelon]]'' and ''[[Stupendemys]]'' (the former having a skeletal framework rather than a solid shell), the tortoise ''[[Megalochelys]]'', and the [[Armour (anatomy)|armoured]] mammal ''[[Glyptodon]]'' and its relatives.<!--ankylosaurs?-->}}

Cretaceous [[Yezo Group]] in [[Japan]] yields multiple taxa of large-sized cephalopod fossil remains. [[Oegopsida|Oegopsid]] ''[[Yezoteuthis|Yezoteuthis giganteus]]'' and ''[[Haboroteuthis|Haboroteuthis poseidon]]'' are only known from jaw elements, which is close to size of that of giant squid. Species of ''[[Nanaimoteuthis]]'', especially ''N. hikidai'' would be the largest known vampyromorph.<ref name="haboro">{{Cite journal |last1=Tanabe |first1=Kazushige |last2=Misaki |first2=Akihiro |last3=Ubukata |first3=Takao |date=2014 |title=Late Cretaceous record of large soft-bodied coleoids based on lower jaw remains from Hokkaido, Japan |journal=Acta Palaeontologica Polonica |language=en |doi=10.4202/app.00052.2013 |issn=0567-7920|doi-access=free }}</ref> Unnamed, incomplete upper jaw fossil that is approximately twice as large as that of the mature giant squid is also found there.<ref name="Tanabe 105624">{{Cite journal |last1=Tanabe |first1=Kazushige |last2=Misaki |first2=Akihiro |date=2023-06-20 |title=Upper Cretaceous record of non-belemnitid coleoid jaws from Hokkaido, Japan, and its evolutionary implications |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0195667123001520 |journal=Cretaceous Research |volume=151 |language=en |pages=105624 |doi=10.1016/j.cretres.2023.105624 |bibcode=2023CrRes.15105624T |s2cid=259228292 |issn=0195-6671}}</ref>

===Historical claims===
====Misidentifications====
[[File:Moroteuthis robusta.jpg|thumb|left|300px|Kubota's photograph of a large ''[[Onykia robusta]]'', which was misidentified as the [[giant squid]], ''Architeuthis dux''. [[wide-angle lens|Wide-angle photography]] exaggerated the size of the squid<ref name=":22">[[#Ellis1998a|Ellis, 1998a:211]]</ref> such that it appeared impossibly large for the species.]]
The maximum sizes of certain cephalopod species, most notably the giant squid and giant Pacific octopus, have often been misreported and exaggerated. The literature on cephalopod size has been further muddied by the frequent misattribution of various squid specimens to the giant squid genus ''Architeuthis'', often based solely on their large size. In the academic literature alone, such misidentifications encompass at least the [[Oegopsina|oegopsid]] families [[Chiroteuthidae]], [[Cranchiidae]], [[Ommastrephidae]], [[Onychoteuthidae]], and [[Psychroteuthidae]].<ref>see [[#Ellis1998a|Ellis, 1998a]]; [[#Salcedo-Vargas1999|Salcedo-Vargas, 1999]]; [[#GlaubrechtSalcedo-Vargas2004|Glaubrecht & Salcedo-Vargas, 2004]]</ref>{{refn|group=nb|name=Psychroteuthidae|[[#Iwai1956|Iwai (1956:139)]] reported on two small squid (92 and 104&nbsp;mm ML) recovered from the "digestive canal" of a [[sperm whale]], which he identified as belonging to the genus ''[[Architeuthis]]''. [[#RoperYoung1972|Roper & Young (1972:220)]] showed that this was certainly a misidentification and attributed them instead to the family [[Psychroteuthidae]]. In a brief summary of this case, [[#Ellis1998a|Ellis (1998a:121)]] gave an erroneous total length of "8 feet" ({{convert|8|ft|m|disp=output only}}) for the larger of the two specimens (even though in an almost word-for-word identical [[footnote]] in [[#Ellis1994a|Ellis, 1994a:145]] he correctly stated the total length was "8 inches" [{{convert|8|in|cm|disp=output only}}]). This mistake was repeated by [[#GlaubrechtSalcedo-Vargas2004|Glaubrecht & Salcedo-Vargas (2004:67)]], giving rise to the claim of an implausibly large psychroteuthid "with about three meter total length".}} This situation is further confused by the occasional usage of the [[common name]] 'giant squid' in reference to large squids of other genera.<ref>[[#Robson1933|Robson, 1933:681]]; see for example [[#MitsukuriIkeda1895|Mitsukuri & Ikeda, 1895]]; [[#MeekGoddard1926|Meek & Goddard, 1926]]; [[#ClarkeRobson1929|Clarke & Robson, 1929]]; [[#Phillips1933|Phillips, 1933]]; [[#Croker1934|Croker, 1934]]; [[#Rees1950|Rees, 1950]]; [[#Smith1963|Smith, 1963]]; [[#Nesis1970|Nesis, 1970]]</ref>

Perhaps the most notable misidentification relates to a photograph taken some time before 1993 by diver H. Kubota off southern [[Japan]].<ref>[[#Ellis1998a|Ellis, 1998a:211]]; [[#Norman2000|Norman, 2000:174]]</ref> The image shows a large individual of ''[[Onykia robusta]]'' (previously known as ''Moroteuthis robusta''), which appears to be sick or dying, alongside a diver in shallow water.<ref name=":22"/> A video of the same animal appeared in a Japanese made-for-television film.<ref name=":22"/> The image was published in the 1993 book ''European Seashells'' by [[Guido T. Poppe]] and Yoshihiro Goto, where it was identified as ''Architeuthis dux'', the giant squid, and said to have been taken in the [[North Atlantic]].<ref>[[#PoppeGoto1993|Poppe & Goto, 1993]]</ref> If true, this image would represent the first known photograph of a live giant squid. In ''[[The Search for the Giant Squid]]'' (1998), [[Richard Ellis (biologist)|Richard Ellis]] wrote:

<blockquote>For a moment, I thought that some obscure photograph had captured the most elusive image in natural history. Fortunately for those who have devoted their lives to searching for ''Architeuthis'', this was only an aberration, a case of mistaken identity.<ref name=":22"/></blockquote>

It would be more than a decade before the true first photographs of a live giant squid in the wild were taken on 30 September 2004 by [[Tsunemi Kubodera]] and [[Kyoichi Mori]].<ref>[[#KuboderaMori2005|Kubodera & Mori, 2005]]; [[#Kubodera2010|Kubodera, 2010:25]]</ref><!-- http://www.guinnessworldrecords.com/world-records/first-sighting-of-an-adult-giant-squid-in-its-natural-habitat --> Kubodera and his team subsequently became the first to ''film'' a live ''adult'' giant squid on 4 December 2006,<ref>[[#Anonymous2007|[Anonymous], 2007]]; [[#Kubodera2010|Kubodera, 2010:38]]</ref> and the first to ''film'' a live giant squid ''in its natural habitat'' in July 2012.<ref>[[#Anonymous2013|[Anonymous], 2013]]; [[#NHK2013c|[NHK], 2013c]]</ref> These milestones were preceded by the first footage of a live ([[paralarva]]l) giant squid in 2001,<ref>[[#Baird2002|Baird, 2002]]</ref><!-- http://www.guinnessworldrecords.com/world-records/first-capture-of-living-giant-squid --> and the first image of a live adult giant squid on 15 January 2002.<ref>[[#Anonymous2002a|[Anonymous], 2002a]]; [[#OShea2003d|O'Shea, 2003d]]</ref> Since then, live giant squid have been photographed and filmed on a number of occasions.<ref>''e.g.'' [[#Guerraetal2018|Guerra ''et al.'', 2018]]</ref>

====Giant squid====
[[File:Giant squid catalina.png|thumb|The "nearly perfect specimen" that was beached alive in [[Trinity Bay, Newfoundland and Labrador|Trinity Bay]], [[Newfoundland]], on 24 September 1877. A number of exceptionally large giant squid were reported from Newfoundland in the 1870s, and these were meticulously documented in a series of papers by zoologist [[Addison Emery Verrill]].<ref>[[#Coe1929|Coe, 1929:36]]; [[#GEVerrill1958|G.E. Verrill, 1958:69]]; see [[#Verrill1874a|Verrill 1874a]], [[#Verrill1874b|b]]; [[#Verrill1875a|1875a]], [[#Verrill1875b|b]], [[#Verrill1875c|c]]; [[#Verrill1876|1876]]; [[#Verrill1877|1877]]; [[#Verrill1878|1878]]; [[#Verrill1880a|1880a]], [[#Verrill1880b|b]]; [[#Verrill1881a|1881a]], [[#Verrill1881b|b]]; [[#Verrill1882a|1882a]]</ref>]]
Reports of giant squid (''Architeuthis dux'') specimens reaching or even exceeding {{convert|18|m|ft|abbr=on}} in total length are widespread, but no animals approaching this size have been scientifically documented in recent times.<ref>[[#OSheaBolstad2008|O'Shea & Bolstad, 2008]]; [[#Dery2013|Dery, 2013]]; [[#Yong2015|Yong, 2015]]</ref> This is despite there being [[List of giant squid specimens and sightings|hundreds of specimens]] available for study ({{circa}} 700 documented as of 2015, of which {{circa}} 460 measured in some way<ref name=":11"/>), including numerous recent examples, such as the 57 specimens recorded from Japanese waters over a 15-month period in 2014–2015.<ref name=":13"/> It is now thought likely that such lengths were achieved by great lengthening of the two long [[cephalopod limb|feeding tentacles]], analogous to stretching elastic bands, or resulted from inadequate measurement methods such as pacing.<ref name=":9"/>

On the subject of the oft-cited maximum size of 18 metres—or 60 feet—[[#Dery2013|Dery (2013)]] quoted giant squid experts [[Steve O'Shea]] and [[Clyde Roper]]:

<blockquote>If this figure [45 ft or {{convert|45|ft|m|abbr=on|disp=output only}}] seems a little short of the [[Brobdingnagian]] claims made for ''Architeuthis'' in most [[Popular science|pop-science]] stories about the animal, that's probably because virtually every general-interest article dutifully repeats the magic number of ''60'' feet.

Steve O'Shea deplores the media's perpetuation of what he believes to be a credulity-straining exaggeration, based on the 19th-century biologist [[Thomas William Kirk|Thomas Kirk]]'s eyeball estimate of a specimen's length.{{refn|group=nb|name=longimanus}} In a comment on the final draft of this article, O'Shea wrote, "Kirk ''paced'' it, in his own words, for he had no ruler/measure handy, and I believe this misrepresentation has been perpetuated enough; if they were foot-on-foot, as in heel directly to toe, I would accept 57 (or 58, whatever the precise figure was), but I think perpetuating this as fact any longer is doing a disservice to science."

Roper, in his comments on the final draft of this article, was even more conservative, writing, "there are no ''confirmed'' records of giant squid longer than about 45 feet [{{convert|45|ft|m|abbr=on|disp=output only}}] total length. Most are in the 25–35-foot [{{convert|25|–|35|ft|m|abbr=on|disp=output only}}] range. I have examined specimens in museums and laboratories around the world—perhaps a 100 or so—and I believe the 60-foot number comes from fear, fantasy, and pulling the highly elastic tentacles out to the near breaking point when they are measured on the shore or on deck."</blockquote>

=====Largest reported animals=====
[[File:Distribution of total length, mantle length and mass in Architeuthis dux.png|thumb|400px|[[Frequency distribution]] of total length, mantle length, and mass in ''[[Architeuthis dux]]''. The {{convert|2000|lb|kg|abbr=on}} extreme [[outlier]] is sourced from [[#Verrill1880a|Verrill (1880a)]] and is unlikely to be accurate; the next most massive individual in the data set was only {{convert|700|lb|kg|abbr=on}}, and 95% of specimens were below {{convert|250|kg|lb|abbr=on}}.<ref name=":10"/>]]
[[File:Linear regressions for Architeuthis dux.png|thumb|400px|[[Log–log plot|Log–log]] [[linear regression]]s for ''Architeuthis dux'': (A) total length vs. mass; (B) mantle length vs. total length; and (C) mantle length vs. mass<ref name=":10"/>]]
[[#Paxton2016a|Paxton (2016a)]] investigated the maximum size of ''Architeuthis'' by performing a statistical analysis using data from [[List of giant squid specimens and sightings|literature records of giant squid specimens]]. He selected what he regarded as the largest size records for each of mantle length (ML), standard length (SL), and total length (TL). Paxton's study has been criticised by giant squid experts, who have called into question the reliability of some of the selected literature records.<ref name=":15"/>

For mantle length, [[#Paxton2016a|Paxton (2016a:83)]] considered the {{convert|11|ft|m|abbr=on|sigfig=3}} reported by [[#Dell1952|Dell (1952:98)]] as the "longest measured", though "more reliably" the {{convert|9|ft|2|in|m|abbr=on|sigfig=3}} ML specimen from [[Lyall Bay]], [[New Zealand]], documented by [[#Kirk1880|Kirk (1880:312)]].{{refn|group=nb|name=Kirk1880|[[#Kirk1880|Kirk (1880:312)]] wrote of this specimen:

<blockquote>On 23rd of May last, the [[wikt:Ven.|Ven.]] [[Archdeacon]] Stock very kindly sent me word that three boys, named Edward R. Stock, and Frank and Walter Morrah, had that morning discovered, at [[Lyall Bay]], what they took to be a very large cuttlefish, with arms several feet long. I lost no time in proceeding to the spot, determined, if possible, to carry home the entire specimen; but judge my surprise when, on reaching the bay, I saw an animal of the size represented in the drawing now before you.* [[Victor Hugo]]'s [[Toilers of the Sea|account]] of his "[[octopus|pieuvre]]" was brought vividly to my mind, and I could not help thinking that a man would stand but a poor chance if he once got within the grasp of such a monster.<br />
My first step after spreading out the arms, was to make a rough sketch and very careful measurements. I then proceeded to extract the so-called [[Gladius (cephalopod)|skeleton]], but found that some person or persons, who had visited the spot earlier than myself, had not been able to resist the temptation to try the temper of their knives upon its back, and had in consequence severed the [[Gladius (cephalopod)|cuttle-bone]] in various places. However, I was able, not only to procure all the pieces, but also the [[cephalopod beak|beak]], [[radula|tongue]], and some of the suckers, only a few of which remained, the greater portion of them having been torn off, either in some fierce encounter, or during the rough weather which had prevailed for some days previously.<br />
The length of body from tip of [[cephalopod tail|tail]] to anterior margin of the mantle was 9 feet 2 inches [{{convert|9|ft|2|in|m|disp=output only}}] and 7 feet 3 inches [{{convert|7|ft|3|in|m|disp=output only}}] in circumference; the head from anterior margin of mantle to roots of arms 1-foot 11 inches [{{convert|1|ft|11|in|cm|disp=output only}}], making the total length of the body 11 feet 1 inch [{{convert|11|ft|1|in|m|disp=output only}}]. The head measured 4 feet [{{convert|4|ft|m|disp=output only}}] in circumference. The sessile arms measured 4 feet 3 inches [{{convert|4|ft|3|in|m|disp=output only}}] in length, and 11 inches [{{convert|11|in|cm|disp=output only}}] in circumference; each of these arms bore thirty-six suckers, arranged in two equal rows (as shown by the scars), and measuring from <math>\tfrac{13}{16}</math> to <math>\tfrac{1}{4}</math> of an inch [{{convert|13/16|–|1/4|in|mm|disp=output only}}] in diameter; every sucker was strengthened by a bony ring armed with from forty to sixty sharp incurved teeth. The tentacular arms had been torn off at the length of 6 feet 2 inches [{{convert|6|ft|2|in|m|disp=output only}}], which was probably less than half their original length.<br />
The fins were posterior, and were mere lateral expansions of the mantle, they did not extend over the back as in the case with ''[[Onychoteuthis]]'', etc.; each measured 24 inches [{{convert|24|in|cm|disp=output only}}] in length and 13 inches [{{convert|13|in|cm|disp=output only}}] in width.<br />
The [[Gladius (cephalopod)|cuttle bone]], when first extracted, measured 6 feet 3 inches [{{convert|6|ft|3|in|m|disp=output only}}] in length, and 11 inches [{{convert|11|in|cm|disp=output only}}] in width, but has since shrunk considerably; it was broadly lanceolate, with a hollow conical apex 1<math>\tfrac{1}{8}</math> inch [{{convert|1.125|in|mm|disp=output only}}] deep.</blockquote>}} Paxton added: "A {{convert|4.5|m|ft|abbr=on|disp=sqbr}} specimen from [[Mauritius]] is often mistakenly cited but consultation of the primary paper ([[#Staub1993|Staub, 1993]]) reveals an ill-defined length which is clearly not ML." The greatest measured ML of a giant squid recovered from a [[sperm whale]] is either the {{convert|2.4|m|ft|abbr=on}} reported by [[#Keil1963|Keil (1963:320)]] (though Paxton writes: "the account is confused and the 2.4&nbsp;m figure probably refers to the head and ML combined") or the {{convert|6|ft|6|in|m|abbr=on|sigfig=3}} of a specimen that had been swallowed whole off the [[Azores]], detailed by [[#Clarke1955|Clarke (1955:589)]] and [[#Clarke1956|Clarke (1956:257)]]. The "longest visually estimated" ML, according to Paxton, is the {{circa}} {{convert|100|ft|m|abbr=on}} of a specimen apparently observed in the [[North Atlantic]] off [[Portugal]], attributed to a personal communication with T. Lipington.<!--see https://www.tonmo.com/threads/sighting-of-possible-large-cephalopod-near-portugal.9270/ = https://www.webcitation.org/6hsSmp9zS; [[User:Tim_lipington]]--> A more modest {{convert|4|m|ft|abbr=on}} ML is also given, based on a sighting in the [[Indian Ocean]] sourced to the TV documentary of [[#Lynch2013|Lynch (2013)]].

For standard length (excluding the [[cephalopod limb|tentacles]]), [[#Paxton2016a|Paxton (2016a:83)]] cited the {{convert|31|ft|m|abbr=on|sigfig=3}} of the "[[Three Arms]] specimen" documented by [[#Verrill1880a|Verrill (1880a:192)]] as the "longest measured". Among specimens recovered from sperm whales, the longest "definitely measured" SL is the {{convert|16|ft|3|in|m|abbr=on|sigfig=3}} reported by [[#Clarke1956|Clarke (1956:257)]] and the longest "visually estimated" SL is the {{circa}} {{convert|9|m|ft|abbr=on}} attributed to a photograph of a sperm whale with giant squid remains in its jaws,<ref>see [[#Hansford2009|Hansford, 2009]]</ref> though Paxton conceded that it is "[n]ot clear how much/what portion of body was eaten". For the "longest visually estimated", more extreme supposed SLs of {{circa}} {{convert|175|ft|m|abbr=on}} and {{circa}} {{convert|100|ft|m|abbr=on}} are cited to [[#Starkey1963|Starkey (1963)]] and [[#Ellis1998a|Ellis (1998a:246)]], respectively (the latter an eyewitness account by Dennis Braun). Paxton treated these last two size estimates as SLs as opposed to TLs because "squid do not generally leave their tentacles exposed except when grabbing prey and this appears to be the case for ''Architeuthis''".

For total length, [[#Paxton2016a|Paxton (2016a:83)]] considered three records as candidates for the "longest measured": the {{convert|19|m|ft|abbr=on}} specimen of [[#Berzin1971|Berzin (1972:199)]], the {{convert|55|ft|2|in|m|abbr=on|sigfig=4}} specimen described by [[#Kirk1888|Kirk (1888)]] as ''Architeuthis longimanus''—a strangely proportioned animal that has been much commented on{{refn|group=nb|name=longimanus|[[File:Architeuthis longimanus Kirk, 1888.jpg|thumb|250px|[[Thomas William Kirk|T. W. Kirk]]'s sketch of the ''Architeuthis longimanus'' [[type specimen]] in lateral aspect, from [[#Kirk1888|Kirk (1888)]]. Note the extreme length of the feeding tentacles relative to the mantle and arms.]][[Thomas William Kirk]] gave the following account of this specimen in his [[species description|formal description]] of ''Architeuthis longimanus'':

<blockquote>[...] Early last month Mr. Smith, a local fisherman, brought to the [[Museum of New Zealand Te Papa Tongarewa|<nowiki>[Colonial]</nowiki> Museum]] the beak and buccal-mass of a cuttle which had that morning been found lying on the "Big Beach" ([[Lyall Bay]]), and he assured us that the creature measured sixty-two feet [{{convert|62|ft|m|sigfig=3|disp=output only}}] in total length. I that afternoon proceeded to the spot and made a careful examination, took notes, measurements, and also obtained a sketch, which, although the terribly heavy rain and driving southerly wind rendered it impossible to do justice to the subject, will, I trust, convey to you some idea of the general outline of this most recently-arrived Devil-fish.<br />
Measurements showed that, although Mr. Smith was over the mark in giving the total length as 62 feet [{{convert|62|ft|m|sigfig=3|disp=output only}}] (probably, not having a measure with him, he only stepped the distance), those figures were not so very far out; for, although the body was in all ways smaller than any of the hitherto-described New Zealand species, the enormous development of the very slight tentacular arms brought the total length up to 55 feet 2 inches [{{convert|55|ft|2|in|m|adj=on|disp=output only}}], or more than half as long again as the largest species yet recorded from these seas.<br />
The length of the tentacular arms is not a very important character, as they are known to be capable of extension or retraction at the will of the animal, at least to a considerable extent.<br />
[...] This specimen was a female, and to this fact may be due some of the points in which it differs from previous occurrences; but yet they are so considerable that I have no doubt a new subgenus at least will have to be created for its reception. In the meantime I place it under ''Architeuthis'', with the full knowledge, however, that it cannot possibly remain there permanently, the shape of the arms and the fins alone being sufficient to put it out of association with that genus. As soon as opportunity offers, I hope to make a further study and fully determine its affinities.<ref>[[#Kirk1888|Kirk, 1888:35–36]]</ref></blockquote>

[[#Kirk1888|Kirk (1888:38)]] provides a table with a detailed breakdown of the specimen's various measurements. There is, however, a discrepancy between the total length of 684&nbsp;in ({{convert|684|in|m|abbr=on|sigfig=4|disp=output only}}, or exactly 57&nbsp;ft) given in the table—which agrees with the individual values of {{convert|71|in|m|abbr=on|sigfig=3}} for the mantle, {{convert|22|in|m|abbr=on|sigfig=2}} for the head, and {{convert|591|in|m|abbr=on|sigfig=4}} for the tentacles—and the total length of {{convert|55|ft|2|in|m|abbr=on}} given by Kirk in the body of the article.

[[#Wood1982|Wood (1982:191)]] suggested that, due to the tentacles' highly retractile nature, the total length of {{convert|62|ft|m|sigfig=3}} originally reported by the fisherman "may have been correct at the time he found the squid", and that "[t]his probably also explains the discrepancy in Kirk's figures". Owing to its small mantle size, [[#Wood1982|Wood (1982:191)]] estimated that "this specimen probably weighed less than 300&nbsp;lb [{{convert|300|lb|kg|disp=output only}}]".

[[#OSheaBolstad2008|O'Shea & Bolstad (2008)]] opined that the reported total length of {{convert|55|ft|2|in|m|abbr=on}} "simply cannot be correct" and attributed it to either "imagination" or artificial lengthening of the tentacles. They added that a female giant squid with a mantle length of {{convert|71|in|cm|abbr=on}} "measured post mortem and relaxed (by modern standards) today would have a total length of ≈32 feet [{{convert|32|ft|m|disp=output only}}]".}}—and the {{convert|55|ft|m|abbr=on|sigfig=4}} "[[Thimble Tickle Bay|Thimble Tickle]] specimen" reported by [[#Verrill1880a|Verrill (1880a:191)]], which is often cited as the largest giant squid ever recorded.{{refn|group=nb|name=ThimbleTickle|The Thimble Tickle specimen, which [[Addison Emery Verrill]] referred to as his specimen No. 18,<ref name=":23">[[#Verrill1880a|Verrill, 1880a:191]]; [[#Verrill1880b|Verrill, 1880b:285]]</ref> is often cited as the largest recorded giant squid, and has long been treated as such by [[Guinness World Records|Guinness]].<ref>see [[#Wood1982|Wood, 1982:189]]; [[#Carwardine1995|Carwardine, 1995:240]]; [[#Glenday2014|Glenday, 2014:62]]</ref>

The Thimble Tickle squid was found aground offshore, alive, on 2 November 1878, near Little Bay Copper Mine, [[Thimble Tickle Bay|Thimble Tickle]], [[Notre Dame Bay]], [[Newfoundland Colony|Newfoundland]]. It was secured to a tree with a [[grapnel]] and rope and died as the tide receded. No part of the animal was retained as it was cut up for dog food. The length of the "body [..] from the beak to the extremity of the tail" (''i.e.'' mantle plus head) was said to be {{convert|20|ft|m|abbr=on|sigfig=2}}, with "one of the arms" (presumably a tentacle) measuring {{convert|35|ft|m|abbr=on|sigfig=3}}, for a total length of {{convert|55|ft|m|abbr=on|sigfig=3}}.<ref name=":23"/> Reverend [[Moses Harvey]] detailed the encounter in a letter to the ''[[Boston Traveller]]'' dated 30 January 1879, which was reproduced by [[#Verrill1880a|Verrill (1880a:191–192)]]:

<blockquote>On the 2d day of November last, Stephen Sherring, a fisherman residing in Thimble Tickle, not far from the locality where the other devil-fish [Verrill specimen No. 19; see [[#Verrill1880a|Verrill, 1880a:192]]<nowiki>]</nowiki>, was cast ashore, was out in a boat with two other men; not far from the shore they observed some bulky object, and, supposing it might be part of a wreck, they rowed toward it, and, to their horror, found themselves close to a huge fish, having large glassy eyes, which was making desperate efforts to escape, and churning the water into foam by the motion of its immense arms and tail. It was aground and the tide was ebbing. From the funnel at the back of its head it was ejecting large volumes of water, this being its method of moving backward, the force of the stream, by the reaction of the surrounding medium, driving it in the required direction. At times the water from the siphon was black as ink.<br />
Finding the monster partially disabled, the fishermen plucked up courage and ventured near enough to throw the grapnel of their boat, the sharp flukes of which, having barbed points, sunk into the soft body. To the grapnel they had attached a stout rope which they had carried ashore and tied to a tree, so as to prevent the fish from going out with the tide. It was a happy thought, for the devil fish found himself effectually moored to the shore. His struggles were terrific as he flung his ten arms about in dying agony. The fishermen took care to keep a respectful distance from the long tentacles, which ever and anon darted out like great tongues from the central mass. At length it became exhausted, and as the water receded it expired.<br />
The fishermen, alas! knowing no better, proceeded to convert it into dog's meat. It was a splendid specimen—the largest yet taken—the body measuring 20 feet [{{convert|20|ft|m|adj=on|sigfig=2|disp=output only}}] from the beak to the extremity of the tail. It was thus exactly double the size of the New York specimen [Verrill specimen No. 14; see [[#Verrill1880a|Verrill, 1880a:189]]<nowiki>]</nowiki>, and five feet [{{convert|5|ft|m|adj=on|sigfig=2|disp=output only}}] longer than the one taken by [fisherman William] Budgell [No. 19]. The circumference of the body is not stated, but one of the arms measured 35 feet [{{convert|35|ft|m|adj=on|sigfig=3|disp=output only}}]. This must have been a tentacle.</blockquote>

Such is the fame of the Thimble Tickle specimen that a Giant Squid Interpretation Centre and a "life-sized",  {{convert|55|ft|m|adj=on}} sculpture have been built near the site of its capture.<ref>[[#Hickey2009|Hickey, 2009]]</ref> The sculpture appeared on a [[Canada|Canadian]] postage stamp issued in 2011.<ref>[[#Hickey2010|Hickey, 2010]]; [[#stamp|[Anonymous], {{abbr|N.d.|No date}}]]</ref>}} Of the last one, Paxton wrote: "Sometimes mistakenly cited as {{convert|17.37|m|ft|abbr=on}} but the source is clear that it is 55&nbsp;ft long." The first two records, particularly that of Berzin, are more questionable, as Paxton explained:

<blockquote>The accuracy of the two longest measured TLs of 19 and 16.81&nbsp;m from a specimen found in the gut of a sperm whale from the Indian Ocean and from the specimen from New Zealand in 1887, respectively, should also be questioned but again are certainly not impossible. The New Zealand specimen (named ''Architeuthis longimanus'' [[#Kirk1888|Kirk, 1888]]) clearly has the largest ratio of TL to ML ever known in ''Architeuthis'' [...] which led <nowiki>[</nowiki>[[#OSheaBolstad2008|O'Shea & Bolstad, 2008]]<nowiki>]</nowiki> to suggest that the length was paced out and/or there was extensive post-mortem stretching. However, a re-reading of the original paper suggests that the specimen, although initially paced out, was actually measured, nevertheless the TL is at the edge of the 99.9% prediction interval range [...] and so it was certainly an unusual specimen. [[#Berzin1971|Berzin's (1972)]] Indian Ocean claim is suspect because of the roundness of the figure, the lack of detailed measurements and because in an associated photo, the mantle (whose length was not given) does not look very large compared to the men in the image. Consequently<!--sic--> the measurement, if accurate, would represent another animal with very long tentacles.<ref>[[#Paxton2016a|Paxton, 2016a:86]]</ref></blockquote>

[[File:Giant squid tentacle saved by Moses Harvey.jpg|thumb|left|The {{convert|19|ft|m|adj=on}} tentacle that fisherman Theophilus Picot hacked off a live animal on 26 October 1873. Picot estimated the total length of the squid at {{convert|60|ft|m|abbr=on}}.<ref>[[#Murray1874|Murray, 1874:121]]</ref>]]

However, as [[#Paxton2016a|Paxton (2016a:86)]] pointed out, the genetic analysis of [[#Winkelmannetal2013|Winkelmann ''et al.'' (2013)]]—which concluded that there is likely a single, globally-distributed species of ''Architeuthis''—did not encompass these two specimens, and it is therefore possible that there exists a second, as yet unsampled, giant squid species with proportionately longer tentacles.

The {{convert|19|m|ft|abbr=on}} total length of the Berzin specimen was later confirmed to be erroneous; according to Valentin Yukhov, who was involved in the specimen's discovery, it should have read {{convert|9|m|ft|abbr=on}}.<ref name=":24">[[#Romanovetal2017|Romanov ''et al.'', 2017<!--include page number when issue published-->]]</ref> The misprint was reproduced in the English translation published the following year and was later propagated in a number of papers on giant squid.<ref name=":24"/> With the Berzin specimen not being as large as originally reported, the longest giant squid recovered from a sperm whale is the {{convert|34|ft|5|in|m|abbr=on|sigfig=4}} TL individual recorded by [[#Clarke1956|Clarke (1956:257)]] (this specimen also has the longest confirmed ML and SL of any giant squid from a sperm whale).<ref>[[#Paxton2016a|Paxton, 2016a:83]]</ref> Paxton considered the "longest visually estimated" TL to be the {{convert|60|ft|m|abbr=on}} published by [[#Murray1874|Murray (1874:121)]], from an eyewitness account by fisherman Theophilus Picot, who claimed to have struck the floating animal from his boat, [[cephalopod attack|causing it to attack]]. Picot managed to hack off one of its tentacles, which was subsequently examined by a number of authors.<ref>see [[#Murray1874|Murray, 1874]]; [[#Verrill1875a|Verrill, 1875a]]; [[#Verrill1875b|Verrill, 1875b]]</ref>

Perhaps the largest of all recorded giant squid specimens was the one found floating at the surface off [[Saint-Gilles, Réunion|Saint-Gilles]], [[Réunion]], on 4 March 2016.<ref name=":24"/> Although due to its great size the specimen could not be retrieved in its entirety, the head and arm crown were saved. Crucially, this meant the beak could be measured to estimate the mantle length and total length of the specimen. Using different [[allometric scaling]] equations,{{refn|group=nb|name=equations|[[File:Squid beak measuring.jpg|thumb|250px|Giant squid beak being measured. Isolated beaks found in the stomachs of predators such as sperm whales can be used to estimate the size of the original animal.<ref>see [[#Roeleveld2000|Roeleveld, 2000]]; [[#Cherel2003|Cherel, 2003]]; [[#Romanovetal2017|Romanov ''et al.'', 2017]]</ref>]][[#Romanovetal2017|Romanov ''et al.'' (2017)]] used the following allometric scaling equations to estimate the dorsal mantle length (DML) from the [[lower rostral length]] (LRL) of the beak, and total length (TL) from DML:
<br />
:<math>LRL = 11.2 \times log_{10} DML - 19.3</math> (all values in mm)<ref>[[#Roeleveld2000|Roeleveld, 2000:185]]</ref>
:<math>DML = e^{(-1.168 + 98.031 \times LRL)}</math> (all values in m)<ref name=":12">[[#Paxton2016a|Paxton, 2016a:85]]</ref>
:<math>TL = 0.006 + 5.117 DML</math> (all values in m)<ref name=":12"/>
:<math>TL = 1.59 \times DML^{1.98}</math> (all values in m)<ref>[[#McClainetal2015|McClain ''et al.'', 2015:Table 2]]</ref>}} the [[lower rostral length]] of the beak, at {{convert|19.74|mm|in|abbr=on}}, gave an estimated dorsal mantle length of {{convert|215.3|–|306.0|cm|ft|abbr=on}} and this, in turn, was used to estimate the total length at {{convert|11.025|–|15.664|m|ft|abbr=on}}.<ref name=":24"/>

=====Supposed sucker scars=====
[[File:Display of sperm whale and giant squid battling in the Museum of Natural History.jpg|thumb|A dramatisation of an underwater encounter between the sperm whale and giant squid, from a [[diorama]] at the [[American Museum of Natural History]]]]
More extreme and outlandish giant squid size claims—belonging firmly in the realm of [[cryptozoology]]—have appeared in the works of authors such as [[Bernard Heuvelmans]], [[Willy Ley]], and [[Ivan T. Sanderson]].<ref>see [[#Sanderson1956|Sanderson, 1956]]; [[#Heuvelmans1958|Heuvelmans, 1958]]; [[#Ley1959|Ley, 1959]]</ref> The existence of these gargantuan squids is often supported by reference to the giant circular scars sometimes found on [[sperm whale]]s, which are assumed to have been inflicted by the [[cephalopod sucker|suckers]] of struggling giant squid. Sometimes these claims are accompanied by extrapolations of body size based on the [[Allometry|isometric upscaling]] of a "typical" giant squid.<ref>[[#RoperBoss1982|Roper & Boss, 1982:97]]</ref> However, such scars are not necessarily of squid origin and may instead represent fungal growths or bite marks, with [[sea lamprey]]s (''Petromyzon marinus'') being one possible source.<ref>[[#Wood1982|Wood, 1982:193]]</ref> Even in the case of genuine giant squid sucker marks it is possible that subsequent skin growth has enlarged them well beyond their original dimensions.<ref>[[#RoperBoss1982|Roper & Boss, 1982:99]]; [[#Wood1982|Wood, 1982:192]]; [[#HaszprunarWanninger2012|Haszprunar & Wanninger, 2012:R510]]</ref>
[[File:A piece of sperm whale skin with Giant Squid sucker scars.JPG|thumb|left|A portion of [[sperm whale]] skin with giant squid sucker scars. In this widely reproduced image the largest sucker scars measure around an inch ({{convert|1|in|cm|disp=output only}}) across.<ref>[[#Ellis1998a|Ellis, 1998a:143]]</ref>]]
Nevertheless, claims of enormous sucker scars are widespread in the literature. [[Richard Ellis (biologist)|Richard Ellis]] collected some of "the more egregious examples" in his book, ''[[The Search for the Giant Squid]]''.<ref>see [[#Ellis1998a|Ellis, 1998a:142]]</ref> These include the claim of [[#Dozier1976|Dozier (1976)]] that "an ordinary giant squid of 50 feet [{{convert|50|ft|m|disp=output only}}] leaves teeth-ringed sucker marks measuring between three and four inches [{{convert|3|-|4|in|cm|disp=output only}}] across on a whale, but sperm whales have been captured with tentacle marks 18 inches [{{convert|18|in|cm|disp=output only}}] across." [[L. Harrison Matthews]]'s monographic treatment of the sperm whale, published in 1938, includes the following: "Nearly all male Sperm whales carry scars caused by the suckers and claws of large squids, scars caused by suckers up to 10&nbsp;cm. [{{convert|10|cm|in|disp=output only}}] in diameter being common. The claw marks take the form of scratches 2–3&nbsp;m. [{{convert|2|–|3|m|ft|disp=output only}}] in length, and appear to be of more frequent occurrence than sucker marks".<ref>[[#Matthews1938|Matthews, 1938]]</ref> [[#Ellis1998a|Ellis (1998a:142)]] wrote that this 10&nbsp;cm figure is "so much larger than any other recorded sucker dimensions that one suspects some sort of error, either in measuring or in transcription."

The subject was covered in some detail by [[#Wood1982|Wood (1982:192)]]:

<blockquote>
Measurements of {{convert|90|ft|m|abbr=on|disp=sqbr}}, {{convert|130|ft|m|abbr=on|disp=sqbr}} and even {{convert|200|ft|m|abbr=on|disp=sqbr}} have been conjectured for giant squids from the size of sucker marks found on the skins of captured sperm whales, but it is dangerous to place too much reliance on this evidence. [[Addison Emery Verrill|Verrill]] says the largest suckers on the tentacles of a {{convert|32|ft|m|abbr=on|disp=sqbr}} long specimen measured 1{{frac|1|4}}&nbsp;in [{{convert|1.25|in|cm|disp=output only}}] in diameter, and those on a 52-footer [{{convert|52|ft|m|disp=output only}}] about {{convert|2|in|cm|abbr=on|disp=sqbr}}. [[#Daniel1925|Daniel (1925)]], however, examined sucker marks on the head of one cachalot which measured 3{{frac|1|2}}&nbsp;in [{{convert|3.5|in|cm|disp=output only}}] across, and others measuring up to {{convert|5|in|cm|abbr=on|disp=sqbr}} in diameter have been found on the skins of sperm whales captured in the North Atlantic. [[#Sanderson1956|Ivan Sanderson (1956)]] goes even further and claims that sucker marks over {{convert|18|in|cm|abbr=on|disp=sqbr}} have been found on the heads of cachalots, but he does not explain how the poor whales managed to escape from the clutches of such colossi!

The general consensus of opinion is that exceptionally large sucker marks, i.e. over {{convert|2|in|cm|abbr=on|disp=sqbr}} in diameter, are old scars that have increased in size as the sperm whale grew.
</blockquote>
[[File:Giant squid tentacle club.jpg|thumb|One of the paired [[tentacular club]]s of ''Architeuthis'', showing the enlarged suckers of the manus, which are the largest found on any of the giant squid's [[cephalopod limb|limbs]]]]
Perhaps the most extreme published claim, ridiculed by [[#Ellis1998a|Ellis (1998a:142)]], appeared in [[Willy Ley]]'s 1959 book, ''[[Exotic Zoology]]'': "Toothed whales, vomiting in death struggle, have shown evidence of still larger [[kraken]]; in one case a 6-foot [{{convert|6|ft|m|disp=output only}}] piece of tentacle, ''with a diameter of 2 feet'' [{{convert|2|ft|m|disp=output only|sigfig=1}}; emphasis in original], has been claimed. Another claim goes for marks on the skin of such a whale, looking like the mark of a sucking disk over 2 feet [{{convert|2|ft|m|disp=output only|sigfig=1}}] in diameter".<ref>[[#Ley1959|Ley, 1959:210]]</ref>

Marine biologist [[Frederick Aldrich]], who personally examined more than a dozen giant squid specimens, wrote that his largest specimen from [[Newfoundland]] bore tentacular suckers "approximately two inches [{{convert|2|in|cm|abbr=on|disp=output only}}] in diameter" but that "[s]uckers and their toothed armament of over twelve inches [{{convert|12|in|cm|abbr=on|disp=output only}}] in diameter have been found in the stomachs of sperm whale<!--sic--> as indigestible wastes".<ref name=":25">[[#Aldrich1980|Aldrich, 1980:59]]</ref> This led him to entertain the idea of giant squid over {{convert|150|ft|m|abbr=on}} long,{{refn|group=nb|name=Aldrich|Aldrich restated this belief in "Monsters of the Deep", the second episode of the 1980 television series ''[[Arthur C. Clarke's Mysterious World]]'': "I believe the giant squid reach an approximate maximum size of something like one hundred and fifty feet [{{convert|150|ft|m|disp=output only}}]".<ref>[[#Ellis1998a|Ellis, 1998a:6–7]]</ref> [[Richard Ellis (biologist)|Richard Ellis]], apparently unaware of Aldrich's similar statements in print, commented: "It is difficult to imagine why Aldrich would have made such an irresponsible statement, unless it had to do with being on camera".<ref>[[#Ellis1998a|Ellis, 1998a:7]]</ref> [[Arthur C. Clarke]] himself once remarked: "it would be strange indeed if the world's biggest squid had been among the very few cast ashore to be examined and measured by naturalists. There may well be specimens more than a hundred feet [{{convert|100|ft|m|disp=output only}}] in length."<ref>[[#Ellis1998a|Ellis, 1998a:6]]</ref>}} and even to suggest a [[binomial name]] for this super-sized species, were it ever to be discovered: ''Architeuthis halpertius''.<ref name=":25"/>

By comparison, giant squid suckers ''normally'' reach a maximum diameter of only a few centimetres. Based on a detailed examination of a number of large specimens from New Zealand waters, [[#Forch1998|Förch (1998:55)]] wrote that "[t]he largest suckers [...] on the sessile arms are a very constant {{convert|21|–|24|mm|in|disp=sqbr|sigfig=2}} in external diameter". In giant squid the largest suckers of all are found on the central portion of the [[tentacular club]], called the ''[[wikt:manus|manus]]'', and among the specimens examined by [[#Forch1998|Förch (1998:53)]] these reached a maximum diameter of {{convert|28|–|32|mm|in|abbr=on|sigfig=3}}. [[#Clarke1980|Clarke (1980)]] wrote: "I have not yet seen conclusive evidence to suggest that sucker scars are larger than {{convert|3.7|cm|in|disp=sqbr|sigfig=3}} across".<ref>[[#Ellis1998a|Ellis, 1998a:142]]</ref> According to [[#RoperBoss1982|Roper & Boss (1982:97)]], the largest suckers of the tentacular clubs reach {{convert|5.2|cm|in|abbr=on}} in diameter.

=====Mass estimates=====
[[File:Lifting giant squid in tarp.jpg|thumb|left|A dozen people attempting to move a [[giant squid]] weighing in excess of {{convert|200|kg|lb|abbr=on}}<ref>see [[#Feldman1999|Feldman, 1999]] for more on this specimen</ref>]]
It is now accepted that the giant squid has [[#Mass 2|a maximum mass of several hundred kilograms]],<ref>[[#OShea2003a|O'Shea, 2003a]]; [[#RoperJereb2010a|Roper & Jereb, 2010a:121]]</ref> but the literature is rife with claims of much greater weights. [[#Clarke1966|Clarke (1966)]], for example, put the mass of the largest giant squid specimens at around {{convert|1|tonne|lb}}.<ref>[[#Alexander1998|Alexander, 1998:1233]]</ref> Similarly, [[Richard Ellis (biologist)|Richard Ellis]] wrote: "Where [giant] squid carcasses have actually been weighed, it appears that the longest ones—in the 50-foot [{{convert|50|ft|m|disp=output only}}] range, for example—weigh about a ton [{{convert|1|short ton|kg|disp=output only}}]."<ref name=":26">[[#Ellis1998a|Ellis, 1998a:106]]</ref> Much greater estimates of giant squid mass can be found in, for example, ''Natural History of Marine Animals'' by [[#MacGinitieMacGinitie1949|MacGinitie & MacGinitie (1949)]]: "two arms of ''Architeuthis'' that were {{convert|42|ft|m|disp=sqbr}} long were found, and if one reconstructed a body [...] the squid to which these arms belonged was {{convert|4.6|ft|m|disp=sqbr}} in diameter and {{convert|24|ft|m|disp=sqbr}} long, with an overall measurement of {{convert|66|ft|m|disp=sqbr}}. It would have weighed about 42{{frac|1|2}} tons [{{convert|42.5|short ton|tonne|abbr=off|disp=output only}}]." They added that a {{convert|55|ft|m|adj=on}} specimen, such as the one reported from [[Thimble Tickle Bay|Thimble Tickle]],{{refn|group=nb|name=ThimbleTickle}} "would have weighed 29{{frac|1|4}} or 30 tons [{{convert|29.25|or|30|short ton|tonne|sigfig=3|abbr=off|disp=output only}}] including the tentacles—a truly noble animal, being a little more than one-fifth the weight of the [[blue whale|largest whale]] and larger than the [[whale shark]]s and [[basking shark]]s, the largest of all fishes".<ref>[[#MacGinitieMacGinitie1949|MacGinitie & MacGinitie, 1949]]</ref> Ellis characterised these estimates as "unfounded exaggerations".<ref name=":26"/> In the revised edition of ''Natural History of Marine Animals'', published in 1968, the authors reduced their estimate to less than 8 tonnes.<ref>[[#MacGinitieMacGinitie1968|MacGinitie & MacGinitie, 1968]]; [[#Wood1982|Wood, 1982:190]]</ref>

[[Bernard Heuvelmans]] believed that "there must be ''Architeuthis'' weighing more than 5 tons, and some even larger ones which must weigh between 2 and 27 tons, the normal weight being around 8 tons. There are good reasons to believe that there may even exist specimens twice as long as that of Thimble Tickle, which, depending upon their girth, might have weighed between 16 and 216 tons, but more likely around 64 tons."<ref>[[#Heuvelmans1958|Heuvelmans, 1958]]</ref> Ellis, who considered these estimates "utterly ridiculous", wrote:

<blockquote>Heuvelmans commits a fundamental error in calculating the weight of some of these monsters when he writes that "the density of living creatures is only slightly higher than that of water ... a decimetre of living flesh weighs about as much as a litre of water." That may be true for some other living creatures, but the flesh of ''Architeuthis'', saturated with [[ammonium chloride]], is ''lighter'' than water, and the giant squid is [[Neutral buoyancy|neutrally buoyant]]. (This is believed to be the reason that dead or dying squid are found floating at the surface or washed up on the beach.) His assumption, therefore, that the 55-foot-long [{{convert|55|ft|m|disp=output only}}] Thimble Tickle squid would have "probably weighed near 24 tons" is patently erroneous.<ref>[[#Ellis1998a|Ellis, 1998a:107]]</ref></blockquote>

On the subject of the Thimble Tickle specimen's mass, [[#Wood1982|Wood (1982:190)]] referred to the work of [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] zoologist and writer [[Igor Akimushkin]]:

<blockquote>According to Dr [[#Akimushkin1963|Igor Akimushkin (1965)]], the Russian teuthologist, a {{convert|12|m|ft|abbr=on|disp=sqbr}} long giant squid will weigh 1 tonne [{{convert|1|tonne|lb|abbr=on|disp=output only}}] if the head, mantle and arms combined make up half the total length. Since there is a [[Cube (algebra)|cubic]] relationship between the linear dimensions of ''Architeuthis'' and its volume or weight, this means the Thimble Tickle monster must have scaled about 2.8 tonnes [{{convert|2.8|tonne|lb|abbr=on|disp=output only}}] (i.e. the weight of a large bull [[hippopotamus]]), although 2 tonnes [{{convert|2|tonne|lb|abbr=on|disp=output only}}] is probably a more realistic figure.</blockquote>

====Giant Pacific octopus====
The maximum size of the [[giant Pacific octopus]] (''Enteroctopus dofleini'') has long been a source of debate in the scientific community, with dubious reports of specimens weighing hundreds of kilograms.
<!--=====Difficulty estimating mass===== ([[#Anderson1996b|Anderson, 1996b:221]])-->

=====Largest reported animals=====
[[File:Distribution of mass and interocular distance in Enteroctopus dofleini.png|thumb|400px|[[Frequency distribution]] of mass and interocular distance in male and female ''[[Enteroctopus dofleini]]''<ref name=":10"/>]]
[[File:Relationship between interocular distance and mass in Enteroctopus dofleini.png|thumb|400px|[[Log–log plot]] showing relationship between interocular distance and mass in ''Enteroctopus dofleini''<ref name=":10"/>]]
In 1885, reporting on the longest octopus specimen reliably recorded up to that point, renowned [[Malacology|malacologist]] [[William Healey Dall]] wrote:

<blockquote>In 1874 I speared an octopus in the harbor of [[Iliuliuk]], [[Unalashka]], which was afterward hung, by a cord tied around the body immediately behind the arms, to one of the [[stern]] [[davit]]s of the coast survey vessel under my command. As soon as the animal died and the muscles relaxed, I noticed that the tips of the longer tentacles just touched the water. On measuring the distance with a cord, I found it to be sixteen feet [{{convert|16|ft|m|disp=output only}}], giving the creature a spread from tip to tip of the longest pair of arms, of not less than thirty-two feet [{{convert|32|ft|m|disp=output only}}]. The arms toward the tips were all exceedingly slender, but rather stout toward the body, which was somewhat over a foot [{{convert|1|ft|cm|disp=output only}}] long. The largest suckers were two and a half inches [{{convert|2.5|in|cm|disp=output only}}] in diameter; the whole creature nearly filled a large washtub. Parts of this specimen are now in the [[National Museum of Natural History|U. S. national museum]].<ref>[[#Dall1885|Dall, 1885:432]]</ref></blockquote>

In an article for the [[National Marine Fisheries Service]] summarising knowledge on the giant Pacific octopus, [[#High1976|High (1976:17–18)]] wrote:

<blockquote>
Several octopuses in excess of 100 pounds [{{convert|100|lb|kg|disp=output only}}] have been encountered and captured. Much larger ones have been reported but, like the [[Loch Ness Monster]], these usually elude the careful photographer or scientist. Most octopuses weigh less than 70 pounds [{{convert|70|lb|kg|disp=output only}}] with a stretched length of 15 feet [{{convert|15|ft|m|disp=output only}}] or less. Overall length between arms is not a suitable measure because of the animal's unusual elasticity.

In the late 1950s, I interviewed a Canadian commercial diver, Jock MacLean of [[Prince Rupert, British Columbia|Prince Rupert]], [[British Columbia|B.C.]] He reported capturing an immense creature weighing 600 pounds [{{convert|600|lb|kg|sigfig=3|disp=output only}}] and measuring 32 feet [{{convert|32|ft|m|disp=output only}}] from arm tip to top. MacLean's photographs, unfortunately, were of poor quality. Smaller animals, to 400 pounds [{{convert|400|lb|kg|sigfig=3|disp=output only}}], were occasionally taken in his commercial octopus fishing endeavor.
</blockquote>

[[#HochbergFields1980|Hochberg & Fields (1980:436)]] referenced the same specimen, writing: "the largest specimen on record with a total arm spread of 9.6&nbsp;m [{{convert|9.6|m|ft|disp=output only}}] and a weight of 272&nbsp;kg [{{convert|272|kg|lb|disp=output only}}]". These figures are only estimates, however, as—contrary to the above quotation from [[#High1976|High (1976:17–18)]]—it appears that this specimen was never collected and measured.<ref name=":10"/> Murray Newman, director of the [[Vancouver Aquarium]] for 37 years, quoted Jock MacLean in his 1994 memoir, ''Life in a Fishbowl'': "Next year [1957] in the same place, I saw one, maybe thirty-two feet [{{convert|32|ft|m|disp=output only}}] across and six hundred pounds [{{convert|600|lb|kg|sigfig=3|disp=output only}}]. Didn't go for her, though, no place to keep her!"<ref>[[#Newman1994|Newman, 1994:66]]</ref> Nevertheless, the [[false precision|misleadingly precise]] [[metric system|metric]] [[Conversion of units|conversion]] of 272&nbsp;kg (for 600&nbsp;lb) and the ''im''precise conversion of 9.6&nbsp;m (for 32&nbsp;ft; naively employing a [[conversion factor]] of 0.3 instead of [[Foot (unit)|0.3048]]) gained wide acceptance as the maximum recorded dimensions of the giant Pacific octopus, and have been much repeated.{{refn|group=nb|name=Bavendam|An example from the May 2000 issue of ''Diver'' magazine reads: "The generally accepted record was of awesome proportions, weighing 272kg and with an arm span of 9.6m."<ref>[[#Bavendam2000|Bavendam, 2000:63–64]]</ref>}}

Jock MacLean is also reported to have ''captured'' a {{convert|198|kg|lb|abbr=on}} animal with an arm span of {{convert|8.5|m|ft|abbr=on}} near [[Port Hardy]], [[British Columbia]], in March 1956.<ref>[[#Newman1994|Newman, 1994:66]]; [[#CosgroveMcDaniel2009|Cosgrove & McDaniel, 2009:66–67]]</ref> Another giant specimen was caught off [[Santa Barbara, California|Santa Barbara]], [[California]], in 1945. Its weight was recorded as {{convert|182.3|kg|lb|abbr=on}} and the surviving photograph makes it possible to estimate its total length at more than {{convert|3|m|ft|abbr=on}} and arm span at {{convert|6|–|6.7|m|ft|abbr=on}}.<ref name=":20"/> In a book dedicated to the giant Pacific octopus, [[#CosgroveMcDaniel2009|Cosgrove & McDaniel (2009:72)]] summarised knowledge on the species's maximum size as follows:

<blockquote>The specimen William Dall speared in 1885 {{sic}} at Iliuliuk had the largest radial span of any giant Pacific octopus ever measured. Jock MacLean's 1956 Port Hardy behemoth was the biggest ever weighed. The Santa Barbara specimen photographed in 1945 was the second heaviest. It would appear that octopuses weighing as much as {{convert|272|kg|lb|abbr=on}} and with radial spans of over {{convert|9|m|ft|abbr=off|spell=in}} are within the realm of possibility, but have never actually been documented by both measuring and weighing.</blockquote>

=====Possible diminution in size=====
No specimens approaching these extreme sizes have been reported since the middle of the 20th century. This lack of giant individuals is corroborated by commercial octopus fishers; none of those interviewed by [[#CosgroveMcDaniel2009|Cosgrove & McDaniel (2009)]] had caught a single animal weighing more than {{convert|57|kg|lb|abbr=on}} in the previous 20 years, among many thousands harvested over that period.<ref name=":21"/> Octopus specialist Roland Anderson, a biologist with the [[Seattle Aquarium]] for more than 30 years, had long sought, unsuccessfully, to find a giant Pacific octopus weighing more than {{convert|100|lb|kg|abbr=on}}. In an attempt to raise a truly enormous specimen, Anderson fed a number of captive males ''[[ad libitum]]''. The heaviest animal (nicknamed 'Big') attained a peak weight of {{convert|43|kg|lb|abbr=on}} and its largest suckers measured {{convert|7.9|cm|in|abbr=on}} in diameter.<ref>[[#Anderson2003|Anderson, 2003:2]]; [[#CosgroveMcDaniel2009|Cosgrove & McDaniel, 2009:71]]</ref> Anderson suggested the species might now be maturing at a smaller size as a result of [[toxicant]] [[bioaccumulation]], which could explain the lack of truly gigantic specimens in recent times. In particular, high concentrations of [[heavy metal (chemical element)|heavy metals]] and [[Polychlorinated biphenyl|PCBs]] have been identified in the [[digestive gland]]s of wild giant Pacific octopuses, likely originating from their preferred prey, the [[Cancer productus|red rock crab]] (''Cancer productus'').<ref>[[#Anderson2003|Anderson, 2003:3]]; [[#CosgroveMcDaniel2009|Cosgrove & McDaniel, 2009:71]]; [[#ScheelAnderson2012|Scheel & Anderson, 2012]]</ref> A preliminary study found that aquarium animals fed equal quantities of raw sea food and live ''C.&nbsp;productus'' (caught locally in [[Elliott Bay]]) matured at a smaller size, reached a lower maximum weight ({{convert|27|kg|lb|abbr=on|disp=sqbr}} mean), and had higher concentrations of most heavy metals, than those fed solely on raw sea food ({{convert|36|kg|lb|abbr=on|disp=sqbr}} mean, including the aforementioned {{convert|43|kg|lb|abbr=on|disp=sqbr}} specimen).<ref>[[#Anderson2003|Anderson, 2003:2]]</ref>

===Largest species by measure===
Cephalopod size can be quantified in various ways. Some of the most common size measures are covered below. The following four tables list only extant species; [[#Extinct taxa 3|extinct taxa are treated separately at the end]].

====Mantle length====
[[File:Giant squid with Clyde Roper.jpg|thumb|250px|Teuthologist [[Clyde Roper]] lying alongside a large [[giant squid]] (''Architeuthis dux'') specimen of almost {{convert|2|m|ft|abbr=on}} ML]]
[[File:Fish4071 - Flickr - NOAA Photo Library.jpg|thumb|250px|Reaching a mantle length of {{convert|2|m|ft|abbr=on}}, ''[[Onykia robusta]]'' is one of the largest squid species (the specimen shown here is considerably smaller).]]
[[File:Giant Homboldt squid.jpg|thumb|250px|A {{convert|52|lb|kg|abbr=on}} [[Humboldt squid]] (''Dosidicus gigas'') caught off the southern [[California]]n coast displaying deep red [[chromatophore|chromatophoric]] colouring.]]

[[File:Enteroctopus dofleini in aquarium rotated.jpg|thumb|250px|''[[Enteroctopus dofleini]]'' at the [[National Aquarium in Washington, D.C.|National Aquarium]] in [[Washington, D.C.]]]]
[[File:Sepia apama 2.jpg|thumb|250px|''[[Sepia apama]]'', the largest species of cuttlefish, is native to the southern coast of Australia.]]
[[File:Sepia pharaonis.jpg|thumb|250px|''[[Sepia pharaonis]]'', a large and commercially important cuttlefish species from the [[Indian Ocean]]]]
[[File:Bobtail squid.jpg|thumb|250px|[[Bobtail squid]]s, such as this ''[[Euprymna berryi]]'' from [[East Timor]], are some of the smallest of all cephalopods and are not known to attain a mantle length in excess of {{convert|10|cm|in|abbr=on}}.]]
The list of largest cephalopods by mantle length is dominated by squids, with more than twenty species exceeding the largest-bodied octopuses and cuttlefish. The largest of all is the [[colossal squid]] (''Mesonychoteuthis hamiltoni'') with an estimated maximum mantle length of {{convert|3|m|ft|abbr=on}} ([[#RoperJereb2010c|Roper & Jereb, 2010c:173]]). Even greater mantle lengths have historically been reported for the [[giant squid]] (''Architeuthis dux''), but these have been discredited (see [[#OSheaBolstad2008|O'Shea & Bolstad, 2008]]).

{| class="wikitable"
|-
!colspan="4" style="background-color:silver;text-align:center;" id="Oegopsida (oegopsid squids)"| [[Oegopsida]] ([[Squid|oegopsid squids]])
|- style="background-color:#cccccc;"
! scope="col" width="15%" | Species
! scope="col" width="15%" | Maximum mantle length
! scope="col" width="15%" | References
! scope="col" width="55%" | Notes
|-
| ''[[Mesonychoteuthis hamiltoni]]''<br />(colossal squid) || ≈300&nbsp;cm (estimate) || [[#RoperJereb2010c|Roper & Jereb (2010c:173)]] || The largest complete specimen, a mature female recovered from the [[Ross Sea]] in February 2007, had a mantle length of around 2.5&nbsp;m ([[#howbig|[Anonymous], {{abbr|N.d.|No date}}]])—this being the maximum scientifically documented mantle length ([[#Rosaetal2017|Rosa ''et al.'', 2017]])—and [[#Colossal squid (Mesonychoteuthis hamiltoni)|several other specimens near this size]] have been recorded. However, at 42.5&nbsp;mm [[lower rostral length|LRL]], its [[cephalopod beak|beak]] is considerably smaller than the largest recovered from a [[sperm whale]] stomach (49&nbsp;mm LRL; [[#OSheaBolstad2008|O'Shea & Bolstad, 2008]]; [[#howbig|[Anonymous], {{abbr|N.d.|No date}}]]). Maximum mantle lengths as great as 4&nbsp;m have been estimated and reported in the past ([[#Young2003|Young, 2003]]; [[#OSheaBolstad2008|O'Shea & Bolstad, 2008]]). There are published claims of a very large section of [[Gladius (cephalopod)|gladius]] that would suggest a colossal squid measuring 5&nbsp;m or more in mantle length ([[#Wood1982|Wood, 1982:191]]; [[#Bright1989|Bright, 1989:146]]).{{refn|group=nb|name=colossalpen|[[#Wood1982|Wood (1982:191)]] provided the following details: "Dr [[Anna McClean Bidder|Anna M Bidder]] (pers. comm.) of the Department of Zoology at [[Cambridge University]], possesses a transverse slice of the [[Gladius (cephalopod)|pen]] of another ''[[Mesonychoteuthis]]'' which, judging by its width, must have come from a [[Cranchiidae|cranchid]] {{sic}} measuring at least {{convert|5|m|ft|abbr=on|disp=sqbr}} in mantle length." The same information is summarised by [[#Bright1989|Bright (1989:146)]].}}
|-
| ''[[Galiteuthis phyllura]]'' || ? 265–275&nbsp;cm (estimate) || [[#Nesis1985|Nesis (1985)]]; [[#Nesis1987|Nesis (1987:274)]]; [[#Ellis1998a|Ellis (1998a:149)]]; [[#GlaubrechtSalcedo-Vargas2004|Glaubrecht & Salcedo-Vargas (2004:65)]]; [[#HovingRobison2017|Hoving & Robison (2017:47)]] || Estimate based on 40&nbsp;cm long [[cephalopod limb|arm]] and 115&nbsp;cm [[cephalopod limb|tentacle]] from the [[Sea of Okhotsk]].{{refn|group=nb|name=Galiteuthis|[[File:Galiteuthis phyllura.jpg|thumb|250px|Drawing of ''[[Galiteuthis phyllura]]'' from the ''[[Bulletin of the United States Fish Commission]]'' (1881), showing the proportionately short length of the arms and tentacles]][[#Ellis1998a|Ellis (1998a:148–149)]] wrote of this specimen:

<blockquote>The Russian vessel ''Novoulianovsk'', working in the [[Sea of Okhotsk]] in 1984, brought up the remains of a gigantic specimen of ''[[Galiteuthis phyllura]]'' from a depth of one thousand to thirteen hundred meters (thirty-three hundred to forty-three hundred feet), and [[#Nesis1985|Nesis (1985)]] said that it was "almost as large as ''[[Mesonychoteuthis hamiltoni]]'' (of the same family)."  Only an arm and a tentacle were collected, but they were so large (the arm was 40&nbsp;cm long [15.6 inches] and the tentacle <!--CheckCM-->{{convert|115|cm|in|round=0.5|abbr=on|disp=sqbr}}) that Nesis was able to estimate the mantle length at {{convert|265|to|275|cm|ft|abbr=on}}, and the total length at over 4 meters (more than 13 feet). "Because of its narrow body," wrote Nesis, "we conclude that its mass is consistently lower than that of the other large squids."</blockquote>

[[#RoperJereb2010c|Roper & Jereb (2010c:165)]] questioned the validity of this record, writing: "this is considered a doubtful record that might refer to total length; probably the maximum mantle length is less than 400 to 500&nbsp;mm". But [[Steve O'Shea]] commented:

<blockquote>The late, great [[Kir Nesis]] was not one to exaggerate, and must have had very good reason to cite a possible mantle length of 2.7m [{{convert|2.7|m|ft|disp=output only}}] for ''Galiteuthis phyllura''. Not only would such a monstrous mantle render this the 'largest species of ''[[Galiteuthis]]''', but it would give the species a mantle that was considerably longer than that of ''Architeuthis'', and marginally longer (0.2m [{{convert|0.2|m|ft|disp=output only}}]) than the submature Colossal Squid (''Mesonychoteuthis'') we reported last year [in 2003].<br />
What amazes me is that the adult has never made the press (that I am aware of). Even if ''Galiteuthis'' lacks hooks on the arms it would still be a most frightening squid to bump into in the abyss. ([[#OShea2004b|O'Shea, 2004b]])</blockquote>}} [[#RoperJereb2010c|Roper & Jereb (2010c:165)]] write: "this is considered a doubtful record that might refer to total length; probably the maximum mantle length is less than 400 to 500&nbsp;mm".
|-
| ''[[Architeuthis dux]]''<br />(giant squid) || 240&nbsp;cm (female) || [[#Landmanetal2004|Landman ''et al.'' (2004:686)]]; [[#OShea2006|O'Shea (2006)]]; [[#RoperShea2013|Roper & Shea (2013:114)]]<!--Roper & Shea's mention of 2.5 m ML specimen cited to Martins & Perez (2009) is in error; this specimen had 1.16 m ML and 2.48 m *total* length (minus tentacles)!--> || Dorsal mantle length of female captured off [[Tasmania]], [[Australia]], reported by [[#Landmanetal2004|Landman ''et al.'' (2004:686)]] and cited by [[#RoperShea2013|Roper & Shea (2013:114)]]. Questionable records of up to 500&nbsp;cm ML can be found in older literature ([[#RoperJereb2010a|Roper & Jereb, 2010a:121]]). [[#OSheaBolstad2008|O'Shea & Bolstad (2008)]] give a maximum mantle length of 225&nbsp;cm based on the examination of more than 130 specimens, as well as beaks recovered from [[sperm whale]]s (which do not exceed the size of those found in the largest complete specimens). [[#Paxton2016a|Paxton (2016a)]] accepts a maximum recorded ML of 279&nbsp;cm, based on the [[Lyall Bay]] specimen reported by [[#Kirk1880|Kirk (1880:312)]], but this record has been called into question as the [[Gladius (cephalopod)|gladius]] of this specimen—which should approximate the mantle in length—was said to be only 190&nbsp;cm long ([[#Greshko2016|Greshko, 2016]]).{{refn|group=nb|name=Kirk1880}}
|-
| ''[[Onykia robusta]]''<br />(robust clubhook squid) || 200&nbsp;cm  || [[#Norman2000|Norman (2000:174)]]; [[#Bolstad2008|Bolstad (2008:107)]]; [[#Okutani2015b|Okutani (2015b)]] || [[#Kuboderaetal1998|Kubodera ''et al.'' (1998)]] give a maximum of at least 161.5&nbsp;cm ML. The largest specimen seen by [[#Bolstad2008|Bolstad (2008:107)]] had a mantle length of 197&nbsp;cm (USNM 816872; specimen of indeterminate sex from {{coord|51|46.9|N|177|39.7|E|name=Onykia robusta specimen (197 cm ML)}}). [[#Verrill1876|Verrill (1876:237)]] reported a specimen with a mantle length of {{convert|91.5|in|cm|order=flip|abbr=on}} and a total length of {{convert|14|ft|m|order=flip|abbr=on}} (excluding the ends of the tentacles, which had been destroyed). [[#Nesis1987|Nesis (1987:192)]] likewise gave a maximum mantle length of 230&nbsp;cm, but [[#RoperJereb2010i|Roper & Jereb (2010i:364)]] wrote that "this old record might be in error", with the species commonly growing to 160&nbsp;cm ML. Previously known as ''Moroteuthis robusta'' (see [[#Bolstad2008|Bolstad, 2008]]; [[#Bolstad2010|Bolstad, 2010]]).
|-
| ''[[Megalocranchia maxima]]'' || 185&nbsp;cm (female) || [[#KuboderaHorikawa2005|Kubodera & Horikawa (2005:210)]] || Size of female caught off [[Motobu Peninsula]], [[Okinawa Prefecture|Okinawa]], [[Japan]], identified as "''Megalocranchia'' [[cf.]] ''maxima''" (see [[#KuboderaHorikawa2005|Kubodera & Horikawa, 2005:223]] for photograph). This species is listed under the name ''[[Megalocranchia fisheri]]'' in many older sources. [[#TsuchiyaOkutani1993|Tsuchiya & Okutani (1993)]], [[#RoperJereb2010c|Roper & Jereb (2010c:171)]] and [[#Okutani2015a|Okutani (2015a)]] give maximum of 180&nbsp;cm, and [[#Norman2000|Norman (2000:158)]] gives the same for ''M.&nbsp;fisheri''. This species may also be conspecific with ''[[Megalocranchia abyssicola]]'' ([[#GlaubrechtSalcedo-Vargas2004|Glaubrecht & Salcedo-Vargas, 2004:65]]).
|-
| ''[[Taningia danae]]''<br />(Dana octopus squid) || 170&nbsp;cm || [[#Nesis1982|Nesis (1982)]]; [[#RoperJereb2010h|Roper & Jereb (2010h:266)]] || The largest well documented specimen is a 160&nbsp;cm ML mature female from the North Atlantic ([[#RoperVecchione1993|Roper & Vecchione, 1993:449]]).
|-
| ''[[Dosidicus gigas]]''<br />(Humboldt squid) || 150&nbsp;cm || [[#Wormuth1976|Wormuth (1976:38)]]; [[#Norman2000|Norman (2000:165)]]; [[#GlaubrechtSalcedo-Vargas2004|Glaubrecht & Salcedo-Vargas (2004:54)]] || According to [[#Wormuth1976|Wormuth (1976:38)]], specimens reaching 150&nbsp;cm ML are "not uncommon" off [[Peru]]. [[#Roperetal2010b|Roper ''et al.'' (2010b:301)]] give a maximum mantle length of 120&nbsp;cm for specimens off [[Chile]] and around 100&nbsp;cm for northern populations, with a more typical mantle length of up to 50–80&nbsp;cm. The review article of [[#Nigmatullinetal2001|Nigmatullin ''et al.'' (2001)]]—based on {{circa}} 230 published papers on the species, in addition to other catch data—also gives a maximum mantle length of 120&nbsp;cm.
|-
| ''[[Kondakovia longimana]]''<br />(giant warty squid) || ≈150&nbsp;cm (estimate; female) || [[#Bolstad2008|Bolstad (2008:171)]] || Estimated size of damaged female (NMV F109447; specimen with 21&nbsp;mm LRL from {{coord|63|04.72|S|
62|56.02|E|name=Kondakovia longimana specimen (150 cm ML)}}). [[#OShea2003b|O'Shea (2003b)]] estimated maximum mantle length as probably exceeding 115&nbsp;cm. Largest complete specimen measured 108&nbsp;cm ML ([[#LynnesRodhouse2002|Lynnes & Rodhouse, 2002:1087]]; [[#RoperJereb2010i|Roper & Jereb, 2010i:366]]).
|-
| ''[[Mastigoteuthis cordiformis]]'' || 100&nbsp;cm or more || [[#RoperJereb2010g|Roper & Jereb (2010g:253)]] || Based on unpublished reports; largest verified ML is 70&nbsp;cm ([[#RoperJereb2010g|Roper & Jereb, 2010g:253]]).
|-
| ''[[Lepidoteuthis grimaldii]]''<br />(Grimaldi scaled squid) || 100&nbsp;cm || [[#RoperJereb2010e|Roper & Jereb (2010e:240)]] || 
|-
!colspan="4" style="background-color:silver;text-align:center;" id="Myopsida (myopsid squids)"| [[Myopsida]] (myopsid squids)
|- style="background-color:#cccccc;"
! scope="col" width="15%" | Species
! scope="col" width="15%" | Maximum mantle length
! scope="col" width="15%" | References
! scope="col" width="55%" | Notes
|-
|''[[Loligo forbesi]]''<br />(long finned squid)|| 93.7&nbsp;cm ||||Maximum mantle length is 93.7 cm in males and 46.2 cm in females.<ref>[https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/marine-biodiversity-records/article/abs/azorean-loligo-forbesi-cephalopoda-loliginidae-in-captivity-transport-handling-maintenance-tagging-and-survival/B348C459B4EDFB2A530EA33DA4C88CB4 The Azorean Loligo forbesi (Cephalopoda: Loliginidae) in captivity: transport, handling, maintenance, tagging and survival]</ref><ref>[https://assets.researchsquare.com/files/rs-1926159/v1/a1b1c776-782d-4066-9c21-4b5cbb6aa7a6.pdf?c=1694444921 Body size and fin length as determinants in the geographic distribution of Loliginid squids]</ref>
|-
!colspan="4" style="background-color:silver;text-align:center;" id="Octopoda (octopuses)"| [[Octopoda]] (octopuses)
|- style="background-color:#cccccc;"
! scope="col" width="15%" | Species
! scope="col" width="15%" | Maximum mantle length
! scope="col" width="15%" | References
! scope="col" width="55%" | Notes
|-
| ''[[Haliphron atlanticus]]''<br />(seven-arm octopus) || 69&nbsp;cm (female) || [[#OShea2002|O'Shea (2002:1)]]; [[#OShea2004a|O'Shea (2004a:9)]]; [[#Finn2014a|Finn (2014a:227)]] || Mantle length of incomplete 2.90&nbsp;m TL mature female, measured defrosted and wet, prior to fixing. Isolated beaks of comparable size to that of this specimen were recorded by [[#Clarke1986|Clarke (1986:247–248)]]. The [[Sexual dimorphism|sexually dimorphic]] males reach a mantle length of over 10&nbsp;cm ([[#Finn2014a|Finn, 2014a:227]]).
|-
| ''[[Enteroctopus dofleini]]''<br />(giant Pacific octopus) || at least 60&nbsp;cm || [[#Norman2000|Norman (2000:214)]]; [[#Normanetal2014|Norman ''et al.'' (2014:124)]] || 
|-
!colspan="4" style="background-color:silver;text-align:center;" id="Sepiida (cuttlefish)"| [[Sepiida]] (cuttlefish)
|- style="background-color:#cccccc;"
! scope="col" width="15%" | Species
! scope="col" width="15%" | Maximum mantle length
! scope="col" width="15%" | References
! scope="col" width="55%" | Notes
|-
| ''[[Sepia apama]]''<br />(Australian giant cuttlefish) || 50&nbsp;cm || [[#Reidetal2005|Reid ''et al.'' (2005:68)]] || 
|-
| ''[[Sepia latimanus]]''<br />(broadclub cuttlefish) || 50&nbsp;cm || [[#Reidetal2005|Reid ''et al.'' (2005:92)]] ||
|-
| ''[[Sepia hierredda]]'' || <50&nbsp;cm || [[#Reidetal2005|Reid ''et al.'' (2005:88)]] ||
|-
| ''[[Sepia officinalis]]''<br />(European common cuttlefish) || 49&nbsp;cm || [[#Reidetal2005|Reid ''et al.'' (2005:99)]] || 
|-
| ''[[Sepia pharaonis]]''<br />(pharaoh cuttlefish) || 42&nbsp;cm || [[#Reidetal2005|Reid ''et al.'' (2005:107)]] || 
|-
| ''[[Sepia lycidas]]''<br />(kisslip cuttlefish) || 38&nbsp;cm || [[#Reidetal2005|Reid ''et al.'' (2005:96)]] || 
|-
| ''[[Sepia ramani]]'' || 37.5&nbsp;cm || [[#Reidetal2005|Reid ''et al.'' (2005:114)]] || 
|-
!colspan="4" style="background-color:silver;text-align:center;" id="Vampyromorphida (vampire squid)"| [[Vampyromorphida]] (vampire squid) <small>– single extant species</small>
|- style="background-color:#cccccc;"
! scope="col" width="15%" | Species
! scope="col" width="15%" | Maximum mantle length
! scope="col" width="15%" | References
! scope="col" width="55%" | Notes
|-
| ''[[Vampyroteuthis infernalis]]''<br />(vampire squid) || 13&nbsp;cm || [[#Nesis1982|Nesis (1982)]]; [[#NormanFinn2014|Norman & Finn (2014:269)]] ||
|-
!colspan="4" style="background-color:silver;text-align:center;" id="Sepiolida (bobtail squids)"| [[Sepiolida]] (bobtail squids)
|- style="background-color:#cccccc;"
! scope="col" width="15%" | Species
! scope="col" width="15%" | Maximum mantle length
! scope="col" width="15%" | References
! scope="col" width="55%" | Notes
|-
| ''[[Austrorossia antillensis]]'' || 9&nbsp;cm || [[#ReidJereb2005|Reid & Jereb (2005:192)]] || 
|-
| ''[[Rossia pacifica]]'' || 9&nbsp;cm (female) || [[#ReidJereb2005|Reid & Jereb (2005:185)]] || Males grow to 4.5&nbsp;cm in mantle length.
|-
| ''[[Rossia macrosoma]]'' || 8.5&nbsp;cm || [[#ReidJereb2005|Reid & Jereb (2005:184)]] || More typically the mantle length is 2.0–6.0&nbsp;cm.
|-
| ''[[Neorossia caroli]]'' || 8.3&nbsp;cm (female) || [[#ReidJereb2005|Reid & Jereb (2005:190)]] || Males grow to 5.1&nbsp;cm in mantle length.
|-
!colspan="4" style="background-color:silver;text-align:center;" id="Spirulida (spirula)"| [[Spirulida]] (spirula) <small>– single extant species</small>
|- style="background-color:#cccccc;"
! scope="col" width="15%" | Species
! scope="col" width="15%" | Maximum mantle length
! scope="col" width="15%" | References
! scope="col" width="55%" | Notes
|-
| ''[[Spirula spirula]]''<br />(ram's horn squid) || rarely exceeds 4.5&nbsp;cm || [[#Reid2005|Reid (2005:211)]] || 
|}
{{Clear}}

====Total length====
[[File:Archie2.jpg|thumb|250px|'Archie', a [[giant squid]] specimen at the [[Natural History Museum, London|Natural History Museum]] in [[London]], measures {{convert|8.62|m|ft|abbr=on}} in total length (see [[#Ablett2012|Ablett, 2012]] for more on this specimen)]]
[[File:LongArmSquid.jpg|thumb|250px|A bigfin squid (cf. ''[[Bigfin squid|Magnapinna]]''), one of the longest known cephalopods. This specimen was filmed in October 2000 by [[DSV Alvin|DSV ''Alvin'']] in the [[Gulf of Mexico]], at {{convert|1940|m|ft|abbr=on}} depth.]]
[[File:Ommastrephes_bartramii_(Neon_flying_squid),_Northern_Hawaiian_waters.jpg|thumb|250px|A freshly caught specimen of ''[[Ommastrephes bartramii]]'' from northern [[Hawaii]]an waters. This species grows to a total length of {{convert|2|m|ft|abbr=on}}.]]
[[File:North Pacific Giant Octopus.JPG|thumb|250px|Large specimens of ''[[Enteroctopus dofleini]]'' can exceed {{convert|3|m|ft|abbr=on}} in total length.]]
The longest scientifically documented specimens belong to the [[giant squid]], with a maximum total length of {{convert|14|–|15|m|ft|abbr=on}} ([[#RoperShea2013|Roper & Shea, 2013:114]]). Despite its proportionally shorter tentacles, the [[colossal squid]] may rival the giant squid in total length, but the species's size limits are uncertain because only a handful of mature specimens have been recorded.

{| class="wikitable"
|-
!colspan="4" style="background-color:silver;text-align:center;" id="Teuthida (squids)"| [[Teuthida]] (squids)
|- style="background-color:#cccccc;"
! scope="col" width="15%" | Species
! scope="col" width="15%" | Maximum total length
! scope="col" width="15%" | References
! scope="col" width="55%" | Notes
|-
| ''[[Architeuthis dux]]''<br />(giant squid) || 14–15 m (female) || [[#RoperShea2013|Roper & Shea (2013:114)]] || Based on a 40-year data set of more than 50 specimens, [[#RoperShea2013|Roper & Shea (2013:114)]] suggest an average total length at maturity of 11&nbsp;m and a "rarely encountered maximum length" of 14–15&nbsp;m. Of the nearly 100 specimens examined by [[Clyde Roper|Roper]], the largest was "46 feet (14&nbsp;m) long" ([[#CerulloRoper2012|Cerullo & Roper, 2012:22]]). [[#OSheaBolstad2008|O'Shea & Bolstad (2008)]] give a maximum total length of 13&nbsp;m for females based on the examination of more than 130 specimens, measured ''post mortem'' and relaxed, as well as beaks recovered from [[sperm whale]]s (which do not exceed the size of those found in the largest complete specimens). [[Steve O'Shea|O'Shea]] estimated the maximum total length for males at 10&nbsp;m ([[#OShea2003a|O'Shea, 2003a]]).

Older records of 18&nbsp;m or more were likely exaggerated by stretching of the long [[cephalopod limb|feeding tentacles]] or resulted from inadequate measurement methods such as pacing ([[#OSheaBolstad2008|O'Shea & Bolstad, 2008]]; [[#RoperShea2013|Roper & Shea, 2013:113]]). [[#Paxton2016a|Paxton (2016a)]] performed a statistical analysis using [[List of giant squid specimens and sightings|literature records of giant squid specimens]] and concluded that "squid with a conservative TL of 20&nbsp;m would seem likely based on current data", but the study has been heavily criticised by experts in the field ([[#Greshko2016|Greshko, 2016]]).
|-
| ''[[Mesonychoteuthis hamiltoni]]''<br />(colossal squid) || approaching 9–10 m (estimate) || [[#RoperJereb2010c|Roper & Jereb (2010c:173)]] || The maximum confirmed total length for this species is 6&nbsp;m ([[#Rosaetal2017|Rosa ''et al.'', 2017]]). [[List of colossal squid specimens and sightings|Two specimens of ''M.&nbsp;hamiltoni'']] recovered from the stomachs of [[sperm whale]]s between 1956 and 1957 off the [[South Shetland Islands]] and [[South Orkney Islands]]—both initially identified as ''Architeuthis''—reportedly measured around 10 and 12&nbsp;m, respectively ([[#SweeneyRoper2001|Sweeney & Roper, 2001:56]]; see [[#Korabelnikov1959|Korabelnikov, 1959:103]] and [[#Yukhov1974|Yukhov, 1974:62]]). Estimated maximum lengths as great as 12–14&nbsp;m have appeared in the popular literature (see [[#Anderton2007|Anderton, 2007]]).
|-
| cf. ''[[Magnapinna]]''<br />(bigfin squid) || ≈7 m (estimate) || [[#Vecchioneetal2001a|Vecchione ''et al.'' (2001a:2505)]]; [[#Vecchioneetal2001b|Vecchione ''et al.'' (2001b)]]; [[#GlaubrechtSalcedo-Vargas2004|Glaubrecht & Salcedo-Vargas (2004:67)]]; [[#RoperJereb2010f|Roper & Jereb (2010f:247)]] || Estimate based on specimen observed by commercial [[Remotely operated underwater vehicle|ROV]] operated from the oil-drilling ship ''[[Millennium Explorer]]'' in January 2000, [[Mississippi Canyon]], [[Gulf of Mexico]] ({{coord|28|37|N|88|0|W|name=Bigfin squid observed from ROV, January 2000}}), at a depth of 2195&nbsp;m ([[#Vecchioneetal2001b|Vecchione ''et al.'', 2001b]]). [[#Bolstad2003|Bolstad (2003)]] gives an estimate of at least 8&nbsp;m TL for the largest observed specimen.
|-
| ''[[Asperoteuthis acanthoderma]]'' || 5.5 m (+) || [[#TsuchiyaOkutani1993|Tsuchiya & Okutani (1993)]] || Total length of immature specimen measuring 0.45&nbsp;m ML. Much larger specimens of up to 92&nbsp;cm ML are known (see [[#KuboderaHorikawa2005|Kubodera & Horikawa, 2005:223]] for photograph). <!--Largest known specimen (0.78 m ML) would presumably be longer if it were complete ([[#Okutani1995|Okutani, 1995]]).-->
|-
| ''[[Onykia robusta]]''<br />(robust clubhook squid) || {{convert|14|ft|m|order=flip|abbr=on}} (+)|| [[#Verrill1876|Verrill (1876:237)]] || Total length of specimen missing ends of tentacles, with a mantle length of {{convert|91.5|in|m|order=flip|abbr=on|sigfig=3}} according to [[#Verrill1876|Verrill (1876:237)]]. [[#GlaubrechtSalcedo-Vargas2004|Glaubrecht & Salcedo-Vargas (2004:66)]] give maximum total length of 4–6&nbsp;m. Previously known as ''Moroteuthis robusta'' (see [[#Bolstad2008|Bolstad, 2008]]; [[#Bolstad2010|Bolstad, 2010]]).
|-
| ''[[Galiteuthis phyllura]]'' || ? over 4 m (estimate) || [[#Nesis1985|Nesis (1985)]]; [[#Ellis1998a|Ellis (1998a:149)]]; [[#GlaubrechtSalcedo-Vargas2004|Glaubrecht & Salcedo-Vargas (2004:65)]] || Estimate based on 0.40&nbsp;m long [[cephalopod limb|arm]] and 1.15&nbsp;m [[cephalopod limb|tentacle]] from the [[Sea of Okhotsk]].{{refn|group=nb|name=Galiteuthis}} [[#RoperJereb2010c|Roper & Jereb (2010c:165)]] cast doubt on the validity of this record.
|-
| ''[[Dosidicus gigas]]''<br />(Humboldt squid) || possibly up to {{convert|12|ft|m|order=flip|abbr=on}} || [[#Clarke1966|Clarke (1966:117)]]; [[#GlaubrechtSalcedo-Vargas2004|Glaubrecht & Salcedo-Vargas (2004:59)]] || Specimens from the [[northern hemisphere]] are much smaller, with those off the [[California]]n coast reaching total lengths of less than 1.7&nbsp;m ([[#GlaubrechtSalcedo-Vargas2004|Glaubrecht & Salcedo-Vargas, 2004:59]]). [[#Roperetal2010b|Roper ''et al.'' (2010b:301)]] give maximum total length of close to 2.5&nbsp;m for specimens off [[Chile]].
|-
| ''[[Megalocranchia maxima]]'' || 2.7 m (+) (female) || [[#YoungMangold2010|Young & Mangold (2010)]] || Total length of 1.65&nbsp;m ML female taken off [[Hawaii]] (see [[#YoungMangold2010|Young & Mangold, 2010]] for photograph). Larger specimens of up to 1.85&nbsp;m ML have been recorded, and these clearly exceed 2.7&nbsp;m TL (see [[#KuboderaHorikawa2005|Kubodera & Horikawa, 2005:223]]<!--Megalocranchia cf. maxima--> for photograph).
|-
| ''[[Taningia danae]]''<br />(Dana octopus squid) || 2.3 m (female) || [[#RoperVecchione1993|Roper & Vecchione (1993:444)]] || Total length of mature female measuring 160&nbsp;cm in mantle length, taken from frozen specimen.
|-
| ''[[Kondakovia longimana]]''<br />(giant warty squid) || 2.25 m (+) || [[#LynnesRodhouse2002|Lynnes & Rodhouse (2002:1087)]] || Size of largest complete specimen (1.08&nbsp;m ML), found floating at surface off [[South Orkney Islands]] (see also [[#Carrington2000|Carrington, 2000]]). Much larger specimens up to an estimated 1.5&nbsp;m ML are known ([[#Bolstad2008|Bolstad, 2008:171]]).
|-
!colspan="4" style="background-color:silver;text-align:center;" id="Octopoda (octopuses)"| [[Octopoda]] (octopuses)
|- style="background-color:#cccccc;"
! scope="col" width="15%" | Species
! scope="col" width="15%" | Maximum total length
! scope="col" width="15%" | References
! scope="col" width="55%" | Notes
|-
| ''[[Enteroctopus dofleini]]''<br />(giant Pacific octopus) || >6.1 m || [[#Cosgrove1987|Cosgrove (1987)]] || [[#Normanetal2014|Norman ''et al.'' (2014:124)]] give the maximum total length as "more than 3&nbsp;m". Questionable length records of up to 9.8&nbsp;m can be found in the literature (see [[#High1976|High, 1976:18]]).
|-
| [[Cirrina]] {{abbr|''gen. et sp. indet.''|genus and species indeterminate}} || over 4 m (estimate) || [[#Voss1988|Voss (1988)]]; [[#Vecchioneetal2008|Vecchione ''et al.'' (2008)]] || Estimate based on photographic record; finned octopods are known with certainty to reach at least 1.7&nbsp;m in total length ([[#Collinsetal2001|Collins ''et al.'', 2001]]).
|-
| ''[[Haliphron atlanticus]]''<br />(seven-arm octopus) || 4 m (estimate; female) || [[#OShea2004a|O'Shea (2004a:9)]]; [[#Finn2014a|Finn (2014a:227)]] || Estimate based on incomplete 2.90&nbsp;m mature female, measured defrosted and wet, prior to fixing. Isolated beaks of comparable size to that of this specimen were recorded by [[#Clarke1986|Clarke (1986:247–248)]]. Males are estimated to reach a total length of 21&nbsp;cm ([[#Finn2014a|Finn, 2014a:227]]) and perhaps as much as 30&nbsp;cm ([[#Normanetal2002|Norman ''et al.'', 2002:733]]).
|-
!colspan="4" style="background-color:silver;text-align:center;" id="Vampyromorphida (vampire squid)"| [[Vampyromorphida]] (vampire squid) <small>– single extant species</small>
|- style="background-color:#cccccc;"
! scope="col" width="15%" | Species
! scope="col" width="15%" | Maximum total length
! scope="col" width="15%" | References
! scope="col" width="55%" | Notes
|-
| ''[[Vampyroteuthis infernalis]]''<br />(vampire squid) || ≈30&nbsp;cm || [[#NormanFinn2014|Norman & Finn (2014:269)]] ||
|}
{{Clear}}

====Mass====
[[File:NZ070415 Colossal Squid 01.jpg|thumb|250px|The {{convert|495|kg|lb|adj=on}} colossal squid on display at the [[Museum of New Zealand Te Papa Tongarewa]]. It is the most massive extant cephalopod on record.]]
[[File:Taningia danae2.gif|thumb|250px|The largest documented specimen of ''[[Taningia danae|T.&nbsp;danae]]'', preserved at the [[National Museum of Natural History]]. It originally weighed {{convert|161.4|kg|lb|abbr=on}} and had a mantle length of {{convert|160|cm|ft|abbr=on}}.]]
[[File:Onykia robsoni 885 mm ML.jpg|thumb|250px|A very large mature female of ''[[Onykia robsoni]]'' with a mantle length of {{convert|88.5|cm|ft|abbr=on}} and total weight of {{convert|11.1|kg|lb|abbr=on}}]]
[[File:Lepidoteuthis grimaldii 617 mm ML.jpg|thumb|250px|''[[Lepidoteuthis grimaldii]]'' female measuring {{convert|61.7|cm|ft|abbr=on}} in mantle length and weighing {{convert|4.07|kg|lb|abbr=on}}, from the [[Chatham Rise]] off [[New Zealand]] (note the prominent [[Cephalopod dermal structures|dermal cushions]], likely used for [[buoyancy]])]]
[[File:E dofleini closeup.jpg|thumb|250px|The maximum weight of the [[giant Pacific octopus]] (''Enteroctopus dofleini'') has been much debated, with numerous reports of specimens exceeding {{convert|100|kg|lb|abbr=on}}]]
[[File:Sepia latimanus (Reef cuttlefish) dark coloration.jpg|thumb|250px|''[[Sepia latimanus]]'' is the second largest cuttlefish species, closely rivalling ''[[Sepia apama|S.&nbsp;apama]]'' in both mantle length and mass.]]
The heaviest known cephalopod, and the largest living invertebrate, is the [[colossal squid]]. The largest recorded specimen of this species, caught in the [[Ross Sea]] in 2007, weighed {{convert|495|kg|lb|abbr=on}}. However, its beak is not the largest known from this species; even bigger colossal squid beaks have been recovered from the stomachs of [[sperm whale]]s, indicating that this species can grow larger still.

{| class="wikitable"
|-
!colspan="4" style="background-color:silver;text-align:center;" id="Teuthida (squids)"| [[Teuthida]] (squids)
|- style="background-color:#cccccc;"
! scope="col" width="15%" | Species
! scope="col" width="15%" | Maximum mass
! scope="col" width="15%" | References
! scope="col" width="55%" | Notes
|-
| ''[[Mesonychoteuthis hamiltoni]]''<br />(colossal squid) || 495&nbsp;kg (female) || [[#howbig|[Anonymous] ({{abbr|N.d.|No date}})]]; [[#GuerraSegonzac2014|Guerra & Segonzac (2014:65)]]; [[#Rosaetal2017|Rosa ''et al.'' (2017)]] || Weight of mature female specimen caught in February 2007, measured after thawing. This specimen was originally estimated to weigh 450&nbsp;kg ([[#Anderton2007|Anderton, 2007]]). Several other specimens with weights in the hundreds of kilograms have been recorded. Beaks recovered from [[sperm whale]] stomachs indicate the existence of even larger specimens, perhaps weighing as much as 600–700&nbsp;kg ([[#beak|[Anonymous], {{abbr|N.d.|No date}}]]).
|-
| ''[[Architeuthis dux]]''<br />(giant squid) || 275&nbsp;kg (female) || [[#OShea2003a|O'Shea (2003a)]]; [[#GristJackson2007|Grist & Jackson (2007:386)]]; [[#GuerraSegonzac2014|Guerra & Segonzac (2014:65)]] || Maximum size based on the examination of some 105 specimens by [[#OShea2003a|O'Shea (2003a)]], as well as beaks recovered from [[sperm whale]]s (which do not exceed the size of those found in the largest complete specimens). Maximum weight for males has been estimated at 150&nbsp;kg ([[#OShea2003a|O'Shea, 2003a]]; see also [[#GristJackson2007|Grist & Jackson, 2007:386]]), though heavier specimens have occasionally been reported (see [[#Deagleetal2005|Deagle ''et al.'', 2005]] for 190&nbsp;kg specimen, [[#Hofilena2014|Hofilena, 2014]] for 163&nbsp;kg specimen). [[#RoperJereb2010a|Roper & Jereb (2010a:121)]] give a maximum weight of up to 500&nbsp;kg, and "possibly greater". Discredited weights of as much as a [[tonne]] or more are not uncommon in older literature ([[#OSheaBolstad2008|O'Shea & Bolstad, 2008]]).
|-
| ''[[Taningia danae]]''<br />(Dana octopus squid) || 161.4&nbsp;kg (female) || [[#RoperJereb2010h|Roper & Jereb (2010h:266)]] || Weight of 160&nbsp;cm ML mature female from North Atlantic. Specimen weighed prior to freezing ([[#RoperVecchione1993|Roper & Vecchione, 1993:444]]). According to [[#RoperJereb2010h|Roper & Jereb (2010h:266)]], the previously reported maximum weight of 61.4&nbsp;kg (based on the same specimen) stems from a typographical error in the original paper of [[#RoperVecchione1993|Roper & Vecchione (1993)]]. This lower value was repeated by a number of subsequent authors, including [[#Santosetal2001|Santos ''et al.'' (2001:355)]] and [[#Kuboderaetal2006|Kubodera ''et al.'' (2006:1029)]].
|-
| ''[[Onykia robusta]]''<br />(robust clubhook squid) || 50&nbsp;kg || [[#Roperetal1984|Roper ''et al.'' (1984)]]; [[#RoperJereb2010i|Roper & Jereb (2010i:364)]]; [[#GuerraSegonzac2014|Guerra & Segonzac (2014:65)]]; [[#Okutani2015b|Okutani (2015b)]] || Previously known as ''Moroteuthis robusta'' (see [[#Bolstad2008|Bolstad, 2008]]; [[#Bolstad2010|Bolstad, 2010]]).
|-
| ''[[Dosidicus gigas]]''<br />(Humboldt squid) || 50&nbsp;kg || [[#Nigmatullinetal2001|Nigmatullin ''et al.'' (2001:10)]]; [[#Roperetal2010b|Roper ''et al.'' (2010b:301)]]; [[#AnonymousNd|[Anonymous] ({{abbr|N.d.|No date}})]] || Commonly reaches a maximum weight of around 20–30&nbsp;kg ([[#Roperetal2010b|Roper ''et al.'', 2010b:301]]). In their introduction to the family [[Ommastrephidae]], [[#Roperetal2010b|Roper ''et al.'' (2010b:269)]] give a maximum weight of 55–65&nbsp;kg, but this is contradicted later in the same work by the 50&nbsp;kg figure in the main species account. [[#GuerraSegonzac2014|Guerra & Segonzac (2014:65)]] give a maximum weight of 90&nbsp;kg.
|-
| ''[[Kondakovia longimana]]''<br />(giant warty squid) || 50&nbsp;kg (estimate) || [[#GuerraSegonzac2014|Guerra & Segonzac (2014:65)]] || Largest complete specimen, found floating at surface off [[South Orkney Islands]], had a wet weight of 29&nbsp;kg and a mantle length of 108&nbsp;cm ([[#LynnesRodhouse2002|Lynnes & Rodhouse, 2002:1087]]; see also [[#Carrington2000|Carrington, 2000]]), but a damaged female specimen with an estimated mantle length of around 150&nbsp;cm is known ([[#Bolstad2008|Bolstad, 2008:171]]).
|-
| ''[[Thysanoteuthis rhombus]]''<br />(diamondback squid) || 30&nbsp;kg || [[#Miyaharaetal2006|Miyahara ''et al.'' (2006)]]; [[#RoperJereb2010k|Roper & Jereb (2010k:385)]] || Probably exceeds the recorded mass of 30&nbsp;kg according to [[#RoperJereb2010k|Roper & Jereb (2010k:385)]].
|-
| ''[[Ommastrephes bartramii]]''<br />(neon flying squid) || 20–25&nbsp;kg (female) || [[#Roperetal2010b|Roper ''et al.'' (2010b:296)]] || Maximum size of specimens from North Atlantic and [[Southern Hemisphere]] (where males reach 2–2.2&nbsp;kg). Females from the North Pacific are smaller (6&nbsp;kg), but males may be larger (2–2.9&nbsp;kg) ([[#Roperetal2010b|Roper ''et al.'', 2010b:296]]).
|-
| ''[[Megalocranchia maxima]]'' || {{convert|52.7|lb|kg|order=flip|abbr=on}} (+)|| [[#Anonymous2015b|[Anonymous] (2015b)]]; [[#Mosendz2015|Mosendz (2015)]] || Mass of specimen found floating dead off [[Hawaii]], estimated to measure at least {{convert|7|ft|m|order=flip|abbr=on}} TL, tentatively identified as ''[[Megalocranchia fisheri]]''. Larger specimens reaching and even exceeding 2.7&nbsp;m TL have been recorded, though were apparently not weighed (see [[#KuboderaHorikawa2005|Kubodera & Horikawa, 2005:223]]; [[#YoungMangold2010|Young & Mangold, 2010]]).
|-
| ''[[Onykia robsoni]]''<br />(rugose hooked squid) || 11.1&nbsp;kg (female) || [[#Vecchioneetal2011|Vecchione ''et al.'' (2011)]] || Weight of mature female (88.5&nbsp;cm ML) caught in bottom trawl at 685–700&nbsp;m depth over [[Chatham Rise]] ({{coord|44|21|S|175|32|E|name=Onykia robsoni specimen (88.5 cm ML)}}). Previously known as ''Moroteuthis robsoni'' (see [[#Bolstad2008|Bolstad, 2008]]; [[#Bolstad2010|Bolstad, 2010]]).
|-
!colspan="4" style="background-color:silver;text-align:center;" id="Octopoda (octopuses)"| [[Octopoda]] (octopuses)
|- style="background-color:#cccccc;"
! scope="col" width="15%" | Species
! scope="col" width="15%" | Maximum mass
! scope="col" width="15%" | References
! scope="col" width="55%" | Notes
|-
| ''[[Enteroctopus dofleini]]''<br />(giant Pacific octopus) || ? >180&nbsp;kg || [[#Normanetal2014|Norman ''et al.'' (2014:124)]] || [[#Cosgrove1987|Cosgrove (1987)]] and [[#CosgroveMcDaniel2009|Cosgrove & McDaniel (2009:69)]] gave a maximum confirmed weight of 71&nbsp;kg for a live specimen collected in the mid-1960s ([[#McClainetal2015|McClain ''et al.'', 2015]]). There exists a dubious record of a 272&nbsp;kg specimen which is sometimes cited as the largest known (see [[#High1976|High, 1976:18]]; [[#HochbergFields1980|Hochberg & Fields, 1980:436]]; [[#Lewy2002|Lewy, 2002:65]]), although it was never actually collected and weighed ([[#Newman1994|Newman, 1994:66]]; [[#McClainetal2015|McClain ''et al.'', 2015]]). [[#Normanetal2014|Norman ''et al.'' (2014:124)]] accept a maximum weight of at least 180&nbsp;kg, which approximates the 182.3&nbsp;kg reported for a specimen caught off [[Santa Barbara, California|Santa Barbara]], [[California]], in 1945, of which photographic evidence survives ([[#CosgroveMcDaniel2009|Cosgrove & McDaniel, 2009:67–69]]). No specimens approaching this size have been reported since the middle of the 20th century, with recent specimens very rarely exceeding 50&nbsp;kg ([[#CosgroveMcDaniel2009|Cosgrove & McDaniel, 2009:71]]). It is possible that the maximum size of the species has decreased over this period, perhaps due to [[bioaccumulation]] of [[toxicant]]s ([[#Anderson2003|Anderson, 2003:3]]; [[#CosgroveMcDaniel2009|Cosgrove & McDaniel, 2009:71]]).
|-
| ''[[Haliphron atlanticus]]''<br />(seven-arm octopus) || 75&nbsp;kg (estimate; female) || [[#OShea2004a|O'Shea (2004a:9)]] || Estimate based on incomplete 61.0&nbsp;kg mature female, measured defrosted and wet, prior to fixing. Isolated beaks of comparable size to that of the present specimen were recorded by [[#Clarke1986|Clarke (1986:247–248)]].
|-
!colspan="4" style="background-color:silver;text-align:center;" id="Sepiida (cuttlefish)"| [[Sepiida]] (cuttlefish)
|- style="background-color:#cccccc;"
! scope="col" width="15%" | Species
! scope="col" width="15%" | Maximum mass
! scope="col" width="15%" | References
! scope="col" width="55%" | Notes
|-
| ''[[Sepia apama]]''<br />(Australian giant cuttlefish) || >10.5&nbsp;kg || [[#Reidetal2005|Reid ''et al.'' (2005:68)]] || 
|-
| ''[[Sepia latimanus]]''<br />(broadclub cuttlefish) || 10&nbsp;kg || [[#Reidetal2005|Reid ''et al.'' (2005:92)]] ||
|-
| ''[[Sepia hierredda]]'' || >7.5&nbsp;kg || [[#Reidetal2005|Reid ''et al.'' (2005:88)]] ||
|-
| ''[[Sepia lycidas]]''<br />(kisslip cuttlefish) || 5&nbsp;kg || [[#Reidetal2005|Reid ''et al.'' (2005:96)]] || 
|-
| ''[[Sepia pharaonis]]''<br />(pharaoh cuttlefish) || 5&nbsp;kg || [[#Reidetal2005|Reid ''et al.'' (2005:107)]] || 
|-
| ''[[Sepia officinalis]]''<br />(European common cuttlefish) || 4&nbsp;kg || [[#Reidetal2005|Reid ''et al.'' (2005:99)]] || 
|}
{{Clear}}

====Shell diameter====
[[File:Argonauta species.PNG|thumb|250px|Eggcases of six extant ''[[Argonaut (animal)|Argonauta]]'' species (not to scale)]]
[[File:Argonauta hians.JPG|thumb|250px|A giant specimen of ''[[Argonauta hians]]'' from [[Taiwan]], which—at roughly {{convert|121.5|mm|in|abbr=on}} in diameter—approximates the length of the official world record size shell.]]
[[File:Fish3214 - Flickr - NOAA Photo Library.jpg|thumb|250px|Young ''[[Argonauta argo|A.&nbsp;argo]]'' female with eggcase]]
[[File:Nautilus species shells.png|thumb|250px|Nautilus shells: ''[[Nautilus macromphalus|N. macromphalus]]'' (left), ''[[Allonautilus scrobiculatus|A. scrobiculatus]]'' (centre), and ''[[Nautilus pompilius|N. pompilius]]'']]
[[File:Nautilus belauensis from Palau.jpg|thumb|250px|''[[Nautilus belauensis]]'' off [[Palau]]]]
[[File:Spirula fg1.jpg|thumb|250px|Two examples of the small internal shell of ''[[Spirula spirula]]'']]
[[Nautilus]]es are the only extant [[cephalopod]]s with a true external shell; in other groups the shell has been internalised or lost completely. Internal shells include the [[cuttlebone]]s of cuttlefish, the [[Gladius (cephalopod)|gladii]] of squids and the vampire squid, the [[Cirrate shell|winged shells]] of cirrate octopods, and the spiral shells of ''[[Spirula]]''. Additionally, females of the octopus genus ''[[Argonaut (animal)|Argonauta]]'' secrete a specialised paper-thin eggcase in which they reside, and this is popularly regarded as a "shell", although it is not attached to the body of the animal (see [[#Finn2013|Finn, 2013]]).

Cephalopod shell diameter is of interest to [[teuthologist]]s and [[conchologist]]s alike. The ''[[Registry of World Record Size Shells]]'', the most comprehensive publication on maximum shell size in marine molluscs, specifies that specimens "should be measured with [[vernier calipers|vernier type calipers]] and should reflect the greatest measurable dimension of the shell in any direction including any processes of hard shell material produced by the animal (i.e. spines, wings, keels, siphonal canals, etc.) and not including attachments, [[barnacle]]s, [[coralline algae]], or any other encrusting organisms" ([[#Pisor2008|Pisor, 2008:14]]). Unlike most other measures of cephalopod size, shell diameter can be determined with a high degree of precision and usually leaves little room for ambiguity. For this reason it is usually recorded to the nearest one-tenth of a millimetre ({{convert|0.1|mm|in|disp=output only}}), as is standard in [[conchology]].

When the ''[[Registry of World Record Size Shells]]'' changed ownership in 2008 it was launched as an online database in addition to its print publication. Subsequent rule changes meant that all records required photographic verification. Over time, older records for which photographic evidence could not be obtained were removed from the database. As a result, some records from older editions of the registry actually exceed the size of the current official record holders, sometimes by considerable margins. Where this has occurred, the largest recorded size across all editions is shown first and any discrepancies or competing records are noted thereafter. Where a reliable literature record surpasses all specimens ever included in the registry, this is given instead and the registry record(s) noted thereafter. [[#Pisor2008|Pisor (2008)]] was the fifth and final print edition of the registry published prior to the rule change, and [[#WRS|Barbier ''et al.'' ({{abbr|N.d.|No date}})]] is the current, continuously updated online database. The registry only covers the shells of [[nautilus]]es and ''[[Spirula]]'' and the eggcases of ''Argonauta''.

{| class="wikitable"
|-
!colspan="4" style="background-color:silver;text-align:center;" id="Octopoda (octopuses)"| [[Octopoda]] (octopuses) <small>– all extant ''[[Argonaut (animal)|Argonauta]]'' species listed</small>
|- style="background-color:#cccccc;"
! scope="col" width="15%" | Species
! scope="col" width="15%" | Maximum shell diameter
! scope="col" width="15%" | References
! scope="col" width="55%" | Notes
|-
| ''[[Argonauta argo]]''<br />(greater argonaut) || 300.0&nbsp;mm || [[#Pisor2008|Pisor (2008:22)]]; [[#WRS|Barbier ''et al.'' ({{abbr|N.d.|No date}})]] || [[#Pisor2008|Pisor (2008:22)]] listed this size for a specimen from [[Australia]] (registered in 1991; in collection of [[Scripps Institution of Oceanography|SIO]]). [[#WRS|Barbier ''et al.'' ({{abbr|N.d.|No date}})]] list exactly the same size for a specimen from the [[Philippines]] (year given as 1985; in private collection of Beals Marty). For a discussion of maximum shell size in this species, see [[#Finn2013|Finn (2013:199)]]. The largest literature record (and the only one to exceed the official world record size) appears to be the rough upper limit of {{convert|12|in|mm|sigfig=4|abbr=on}} given by [[#Webb1945|Webb (1945:13)]] for the species as a whole ([[#Finn2013|Finn, 2013:199]]).

Under ''[[Argonauta cygnus]]'', [[#Pisor2008|Pisor (2008:22)]] listed a 220.0&nbsp;mm record for a specimen from western [[Mexico]] (acquired in 1995; in collection of [[Scripps Institution of Oceanography|SIO]]). The same specimen was previously listed under ''[[Argonauta pacificus]]'' (as ''A.&nbsp;pacifica'') by [[#Pisor2005|Pisor (2005:12)]]. Both ''A.&nbsp;cygnus'' and ''A.&nbsp;pacificus'' are considered synonyms of ''A.&nbsp;argo'' by [[#Finn2013|Finn (2013)]] and [[#Finn2014b|Finn (2014b)]].
|-
| ''[[Argonauta nodosus]]''<br />(knobbed argonaut) || 292.0&nbsp;mm || [[#Pisor2008|Pisor (2008:22)]] || Size of a specimen from [[South Australia]] (registered in 1977; in collection of [[American Museum of Natural History|AMNH]]). [[#WRS|Barbier ''et al.'' ({{abbr|N.d.|No date}})]] list a record of 204.0&nbsp;mm for a specimen from the "[[Tasmania]] area", [[Australia]] (year given as 2000; in private collection of B. Henke). <!--official record as of 22/02/2016: [[#WRS|Barbier ''et al.'' ({{abbr|N.d.|No date}})]] list a record of 171.44&nbsp;mm for a specimen from [[Tasmania]], [[Australia]] (year given as 2000; in private collection of G. Munshower).--> For a discussion of maximum shell size in this species, see [[#Finn2013|Finn (2013:167)]]; a number of unconfirmed reports put the maximum size beyond 300&nbsp;mm. 
|-
| ''[[Argonauta hians]]''<br />(muddy argonaut) || 121.61&nbsp;mm || [[#WRS|Barbier ''et al.'' ({{abbr|N.d.|No date}})]] || Size of a specimen from the [[Gulf of Aqaba]], [[Red Sea]] (year given as 1995; in private collection of Simon Weigmann). [[#Pisor2008|Pisor (2008:22)]] listed a record of 112.6&nbsp;mm for a specimen from the [[Philippines]] (registered in 1988; in private collection of Victor Dan). For a discussion of maximum shell size in this species, see [[#Finn2013|Finn (2013:186)]]; none of the records discussed therein exceed the current world record specimen.
|-
| ''[[Argonauta boettgeri]]''{{refn|group=nb|name=Argonauta|The taxonomic validity of these ''[[Argonaut (animal)|Argonauta]]'' species is questionable. [[#Finn2013|Finn (2013)]] and [[#Finn2014b|Finn (2014b)]] recognised only four species in the genus: ''[[Argonauta argo|A.&nbsp;argo]]'' ([[synonym (taxonomy)|syn.]] ''[[Argonauta cygnus|A.&nbsp;cygnus]]'', ''[[Argonauta pacificus|A.&nbsp;pacificus]]''), ''[[Argonauta hians|A.&nbsp;hians]]'' (syn. ''[[Argonauta boettgeri|A.&nbsp;boettgeri]]''), ''[[Argonauta nodosus|A.&nbsp;nodosus]]'', and ''[[Argonauta nouryi|A.&nbsp;nouryi]]'' (syn. ''[[Argonauta cornutus|A.&nbsp;cornutus]]'').}} || 108.03&nbsp;mm || [[#WRS|Barbier ''et al.'' ({{abbr|N.d.|No date}})]] || Size of a specimen taken from the [[China Sea]] off [[Zhejiang Province]] by a local fisherman (year given as 2005; in private collection of Simon Weigmann). [[#Pisor2008|Pisor (2008:22)]] listed a record of 102.2&nbsp;mm for a specimen from the [[Philippines]] (collected in 2005; in collection of Havelet Marine). [[#Pisor2005|Pisor (2005:12)]] listed a record of 67.0&nbsp;mm for a specimen from [[Mozambique]], which is the ''[[wikt:locus classicus|locus classicus]]'' of this species (registered in 2003; in private collection of Pete Stimpson).
|-
| ''[[Argonauta cornutus]]''{{refn|group=nb|name=Argonauta}} || 98.7&nbsp;mm || [[#WRS|Barbier ''et al.'' ({{abbr|N.d.|No date}})]] || Size of a specimen<!--looks like A. hians--> from western [[Mexico]] (year given as 1985; in collection of W. D. Schroeder). [[#Pisor2008|Pisor (2008:22)]] listed possibly the same specimen, also from western [[Mexico]], at 98.6&nbsp;mm (collected in 1999; in private collection of W. D. Schroeder). <!--official record as of 22/02/2016 (looks like real A. cornutus): [[#WRS|Barbier ''et al.'' ({{abbr|N.d.|No date}})]] list a record of 65.54&nbsp;mm for a specimen from western [[Mexico]] (year given as 2000; in collection of Havelet Marine).-->
|-
| ''[[Argonauta nouryi]]'' || 95.5&nbsp;mm || [[#Pisor2008|Pisor (2008:22)]]; [[#WRS|Barbier ''et al.'' ({{abbr|N.d.|No date}})]] || Size of a specimen from [[California]] (collected in 1992; in collection of Havelet Marine). For a discussion of maximum shell size in this species, see [[#Finn2013|Finn (2013:207)]]; none of the records discussed therein exceed the current world record specimen (when including ''[[Argonauta cornutus|A.&nbsp;cornutus]]'', which Finn treats as a synonym of ''A.&nbsp;nouryi'').
|-
!colspan="4" style="background-color:silver;text-align:center;" id="Nautilida (nautiluses)"| [[Nautilida]] (nautiluses) <small>– all extant species listed</small>
|- style="background-color:#cccccc;"
! scope="col" width="15%" | Species
! scope="col" width="15%" | Maximum shell diameter
! scope="col" width="15%" | References
! scope="col" width="55%" | Notes
|-
| ''[[Nautilus pompilius pompilius]]''<br />(emperor nautilus) || 254.0&nbsp;mm || [[#Pisor2008|Pisor (2008:121)]]; [[#WRS|Barbier ''et al.'' ({{abbr|N.d.|No date}})]] || Size of a specimen from [[Indonesia]] (registered in 2003; in private collection of Pete Stimpson), listed as ''N.&nbsp;p.&nbsp;pompilius''. [[#Hutselletal1997|Hutsell ''et al.'' (1997:48)]] listed a 253.0&nbsp;mm specimen, also from [[Indonesia]] (collected in 1983; in private collection of Cecelia Abbott). [[#HarasewychMoretzsohn2010|Harasewych & Moretzsohn (2010:632)]] give a maximum shell diameter of 268&nbsp;mm for this species, but this is based on an erroneous record.{{refn|group=nb|name=error|This record is based on a shell collected in 2001 from the [[Timor Sea]] off [[Indonesia]], which was sold in 2003 as a specimen of ''N.&nbsp;repertus'' with a diameter of {{convert|268|mm|in|abbr=on}}. It was subsequently found to measure only around {{convert|243|mm|in|abbr=on}} and the discrepancy was put down to an encoding mistake ([[#Anonymous2003a|[Anonymous], 2003a]]). Another specimen from the same locality, sold around the same time, was claimed to measure {{convert|255|mm|in|abbr=on}} ([[#Anonymous2003b|[Anonymous], 2003b]]).}}

Under ''N.&nbsp;repertus'' (which is treated here in synonymy with ''N.&nbsp;p.&nbsp;pompilius''; [[#Jereb2005|Jereb (2005:53)]] considered it a "questionable species"), [[#Pisor2005|Pisor (2005:93)]] listed a 230.0&nbsp;mm record for a specimen from [[Indonesia]] (registered in 2000; in private collection of Pete Stimpson), [[#Pisor2008|Pisor (2008)]] did not include the taxon at all, while [[#WRS|Barbier ''et al.'' ({{abbr|N.d.|No date}})]] list a record of 242.07&nbsp;mm for a specimen from [[India]] (no year given; in private collection of Simon Weigmann).

The largest [[Albinism in biology|albinistic]] ''N.&nbsp;p.&nbsp;pompilius'' is listed by [[#WRS|Barbier ''et al.'' ({{abbr|N.d.|No date}})]] as a 175.0&nbsp;mm specimen trawled at 400&nbsp;m depth off [[Zamboanga Peninsula (geographical region)|Zamboanga]] in the [[Philippines]] (year given as 2013; in collection of Havelet Marine).
|-
| ''[[Nautilus stenomphalus]]''<br />(white-patch nautilus) || 239.39&nbsp;mm || [[#WRS|Barbier ''et al.'' ({{abbr|N.d.|No date}})]] || Size of a specimen from [[Timor Island]], [[Indonesia]] (year given as 2009; in private collection of Simon Weigmann). Under ''N.&nbsp;pompilius'' [[Form (zoology)|f.]] ''stenomphalus'', [[#Pisor2008|Pisor (2008:121)]] listed a maximum shell diameter of 221.0&nbsp;mm for a specimen from the [[Philippines]] (no year given; in collection of Havelet Marine).
|-
| ''[[Nautilus belauensis]]''<br />(Palau nautilus) || 239&nbsp;mm || [[#Grulke2016|Grulke (2016:76)]] || [[#Grulke2016|Grulke (2016:76)]] gives an adult shell size range of 180–239&nbsp;mm, and a mean adult shell diameter of 200&nbsp;mm. [[#Jereb2005|Jereb (2005:54)]] gives 226&nbsp;mm as the maximum size for the species, with no reference to a particular specimen. [[#Pisor2008|Pisor (2008:121)]] and [[#WRS|Barbier ''et al.'' ({{abbr|N.d.|No date}})]] list a record of 221.0&nbsp;mm for a specimen from [[Babeldaob]], [[Palau]] (year given as 1980; in collection of Havelet Marine).<!--237 mm specimen sold on shellauction.net in December 2015-->
|-
| ''[[Nautilus pompilius suluensis]]'' || 220.0&nbsp;mm || [[#WRS|Barbier ''et al.'' ({{abbr|N.d.|No date}})]] || Size of a specimen from the [[Philippines]] (year given as 2000; in private collection of Pete Stimpson). [[#Pisor2008|Pisor (2008:121)]] listed a maximum shell diameter of 148.0&nbsp;mm for a specimen from the [[Philippines]] (registered in 2000; in private collection of Pete Stimpson). ''N.&nbsp;p.&nbsp;suluensis'' is a dwarf form from the [[Sulu Sea]] that has the smallest mean shell diameter of all known extant nautilus populations, at 115.6&nbsp;mm ([[#Dunstanetal2011|Dunstan ''et al.'', 2011]]).
|-
| ''[[Allonautilus scrobiculatus]]''<br />(crusty nautilus) || 215.0&nbsp;mm || [[#Pisor2005|Pisor (2005:93)]] || Size of a specimen from the [[Philippines]] (registered in 2000; in private collection of Pete Stimpson), listed as ''Nautilus scrobiculatus''. [[#Pisor2008|Pisor (2008)]] did not include this species at all. [[#WRS|Barbier ''et al.'' ({{abbr|N.d.|No date}})]] list a record of 214.0&nbsp;mm for a specimen from [[Indonesia]] (year given as 2013; in private collection of Pete Stimpson). <!--two 213 mm specimens also sold at auction; https://www.webcitation.org/6fV2hxBfD-->
|-
| ''[[Nautilus macromphalus]]''<br />(bellybutton nautilus) || 180.62 mm || [[#WRS|Barbier ''et al.'' ({{abbr|N.d.|No date}})]] || Size of a specimen from [[New Caledonia]] (year given as 2008; in private collection of Simon Weigmann). [[#Pisor2008|Pisor (2008:121)]] listed a maximum shell diameter of 180.0&nbsp;mm for a specimen from New Caledonia (collected in 1995; in private collection of Kent Trego).
|-
| ''[[Allonautilus perforatus]]'' || around 180 mm || [[#Jereb2005|Jereb (2005:55)]]; [[#Grulke2016|Grulke (2016:83)]] || Given as the maximum size for the species, with no reference to a particular specimen. [[#Jereb2005|Jereb (2005:55)]] considered ''A.&nbsp;perforatus'' a "[v]ery rare form of questionable validity".
|-
!colspan="4" style="background-color:silver;text-align:center;" id="Spirulida (spirula)"| [[Spirulida]] (spirula) <small>– single extant species</small>
|- style="background-color:#cccccc;"
! scope="col" width="15%" | Species
! scope="col" width="15%" | Maximum shell diameter
! scope="col" width="15%" | References
! scope="col" width="55%" | Notes
|-
| ''[[Spirula spirula]]''<br />(ram's horn squid) || 28.8&nbsp;mm || [[#Anonymous2003c|[Anonymous] (2003c)]] || Size of a specimen from [[Samar Island]], the [[Philippines]] (collected in 2003). [[#Pisor2008|Pisor (2008:139)]] and [[#WRS|Barbier ''et al.'' ({{abbr|N.d.|No date}})]] list a record of 27.2&nbsp;mm for a specimen from [[Phuket Island]], [[Thailand]] (collected {{circa}} 2000; in collection of Havelet Marine; see [[#Anonymous2006|[Anonymous], 2006]] for online record).
|}
{{Clear}}

====Extinct taxa====
[[File:Ammonit Parapuzosia seppenradensis.jpg|thumb|250px|The largest [[ammonite]] ever found, a specimen of ''[[Parapuzosia seppenradensis]]'' measuring {{convert|1.742|m|ft|abbr=on}} in diameter. The fossil pictured is the original held at the [[Westfälisches Museum für Naturkunde]] in [[Münster]], but many casts exist.]]
[[File:Parapuzosia seppenradensis (Plate I).jpg|thumb|250px|The earliest discovered fossil of ''[[Parapuzosia seppenradensis|P.&nbsp;seppenradensis]]'', as it appeared at the [[Westphalian Museum of Natural History]] in 1895. A human skeleton provided scale, while an oil painted background reconstructed the living chamber and animal itself, together with assorted [[Cretaceous]] sealife.]]
<!--[[File:Parapuzosia seppenradensis 3.jpg|thumb|250px|Life-size cast of the largest known ''[[Parapuzosia seppenradensis]]'' specimen, measuring {{convert|1.742|m|ft|abbr=on}} across]]-->
[[File:The Biggest Ammonite Found in Bulgaria National Museum of Natural History Sofia.JPG|thumb|250px|The largest ammonite ever found in [[Bulgaria]]: a 1.44&nbsp;m ''[[Parapuzosia]]'' sp. collected near [[Shumen]] in 1932. It is on display at the [[National Museum of Natural History (Bulgaria)|National Museum of Natural History]] in [[Sofia]].]]
[[File:Pachydesmoceras pachydiscoide.jpg|thumb|250px|Giant fossil of ''[[Pachydesmoceras pachydiscoide]]'' from [[Mikasa, Hokkaido|Mikasa]], [[Hokkaido]], [[Japan]], exhibited at the [[National Museum of Nature and Science]] in [[Tokyo]]]]
[[File:Titanites giganteus.JPG|thumb|250px|''[[Titanites giganteus]]'' at the [[Natural History Museum, London|Natural History Museum]] in [[London]]]]
[[File:Baculites grandis shell.JPG|thumb|250px|The uncoiled shell of ''[[Baculites grandis]]'', a species of [[heteromorph ammonite]]]]
[[File:Megateuthis 1.JPG|thumb|250px|Fossilised guards of the [[Jurassic]] belemnites ''[[Megateuthis gigantea]]'' (top two) and ''[[Megateuthis aalensis]]'']]
[[File:Acroteuthis subquadrata - Naturhistorisches Museum, Braunschweig, Germany - DSC05160.JPG|thumb|250px|Fossilised rostrum of ''[[Acroteuthis subquadrata]]'']]
[[File:Endoceras.JPG|thumb|250px|''[[Endoceras]]'' orthocones]]
[[File:Orthoceras BW.jpg|thumb|250px|Artist's reconstruction of ''[[Orthoceras]]'' sp., an [[orthocerid]] of the [[Middle Ordovician]]]]
<!--[[File:Cameroceras inaequabile fossil nautiloid, northern Kentucky.jpg|thumb|250px|Partial internal mould of a ''[[Cameroceras inaequabile]]'' from the [[Ordovician]] of [[Kentucky]]]]
[[File:TusoteuthisDB2.jpg|thumb|250px|Artist's reconstruction of the giant [[vampyromorphid]] ''[[Tusoteuthis longa]]'']]-->

{| class="wikitable"
|-
!colspan="4" style="background-color:silver;text-align:center;" id="Ammonoidea (ammonoids)"| [[Ammonoidea]] (ammonoids)
|- style="background-color:#cccccc;"
! scope="col" width="15%" | Species
! scope="col" width="15%" | Maximum shell diameter (length for heteromorphs)
! scope="col" width="15%" | References
! scope="col" width="55%" | Notes
|-
| ''[[Parapuzosia seppenradensis]]'' || 2–3.5 m (estimate) || [[#Landois1895|Landois (1895:100)]]; [[#Landois1898|Landois (1898:27)]]; [[#TeichertKummel1960|Teichert & Kummel (1960:6)]]; [[#Summesberger1979|Summesberger (1979:128)]]; [[#Holland1987|Holland (1987:6)]]; [[#KennedyKaplan1995|Kennedy & Kaplan (1995:21)]]; [[#Lewy2002|Lewy (2002:66)]]; frim ''et al''. (2021) || Widely recognised as the largest ammonite specimen ever found ([[#Payneetal2009|Payne ''et al.'', 2009:27]]; [[#Grulke2014|Grulke, 2014:124]]). Discovered in 1895 in a quarry in [[Seppenrade]], [[Coesfeld (district)|Coesfeld]], [[Germany]], the original is on display at the [[Westfälisches Museum für Naturkunde]] in [[Münster]]. Estimate based on [[lectotype]] measuring 1.742&nbsp;m in diameter ([[#KennedyKaplan1995|Kennedy & Kaplan, 1995:21]]) with an incomplete [[living chamber]], assuming living chamber took up one-fourth of the outer [[whorl (mollusc)|whorl]]. [[#TeichertKummel1960|Teichert & Kummel (1960:6)]] suggested an even larger shell diameter of around 3.5&nbsp;m for this specimen, assuming the body chamber extended for three-fourths to one full whorl. [[#Landois1898|Landois (1898:27)]] estimated the total live weight at 1456&nbsp;kg, of which the shell would constitute 705&nbsp;kg. The fossil itself weighs around 3.5&nbsp;tonnes ([[#Beer2015|Beer, 2015]]). A smaller specimen of 1.36&nbsp;m was found in the same quarry some years earlier ([[#Beer2015|Beer, 2015]]). In 1971 a portion of an ammonite possibly surpassing the Seppenrade specimen was reportedly found in a [[brickyard]] in [[Bottrop]], western Germany ([[#Beer2015|Beer, 2015]]). In 2021, diameter of 2 m is estimated for the largest specimen.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Ifrim |first1=Christina |last2=Stinnesbeck |first2=Wolfgang |last3=González |first3=Arturo H. González |last4=Schorndorf |first4=Nils |last5=Gale |first5=Andrew S. |date=2021-11-10 |title=Ontogeny, evolution and palaeogeographic distribution of the world's largest ammonite Parapuzosia (P.) seppenradensis (Landois, 1895) |journal=PLOS ONE |language=en |volume=16 |issue=11 |pages=e0258510 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0258510 |issn=1932-6203 |pmc=8580234 |pmid=34758037|bibcode=2021PLoSO..1658510I |doi-access=free }}</ref>
|-
| ''[[Parapuzosia bradyi]]'' || >1.8 m (estimate) || [[#Larsonetal1997|Larson ''et al.'' (1997:44)]]; [[#Lewy2002|Lewy (2002:66)]] || Largest known North American ammonite. Estimate based on incomplete specimen measuring 1.37&nbsp;m in diameter (missing at least half a [[whorl (mollusc)|whorl]] of the [[body chamber]]).
|-
| [[Peltoceratinae]] {{abbr|''gen. et sp. indet.''|genus and species indeterminate}} || 1.78 m (estimate) || [[#Poulton1989|Poulton (1989)]] || Estimate based on small portion of [[whorl (mollusc)|outer whorl]] measuring 1.2 m along the venter and subtending a chord of 1.13 m. The estimate is based on the ultimate whorl height/diameter ratio of [[Titanites occidentalis|"''Titanites''" ''occidentalis'']] (about 35%), and assumes a constant rate of expansion. More crude calculations give a circular diameter of 2–2.4&nbsp;m (best fit of the specimen's outline to a curve yields 2.16&nbsp;m estimate).
|-
| ''[[Eopachydiscus]]'' sp. || 1.67 m || [[#Grulke2014|Grulke (2014:125)]] || This specimen, from the [[Albian]] [[Duck Creek Formation]] of [[Texas]], has been exhibited at the Tucson Fossil Show and in a New York auction.
|- 
| [[Pachydesmoceras|''Pachydesmoceras'' cf. ''pachydiscoide'']] || 1.65 m (estimate) || [[#KinNiedzwiedzki2012|Kin & Niedźwiedzki (2012:19)]] || Estimate based on 0.98&nbsp;m diameter specimen representing an apparently complete [[phragmocone]] (previously referred to ''[[Lewesiceras peramplum]]'' or ''[[Parapuzosia]]''). A more complete and therefore larger specimen (1.18&nbsp;m diameter) consisting of a complete phragmocone and near-complete [[body chamber]] is also known ([[#KinNiedzwiedzki2012|Kin & Niedźwiedzki, 2012:17]]).
|-
| ''[[Lytoceras|Lytoceras taharoaense]]'' || 1.5 m || [[#Stevens1978a|Stevens (1978a:3)]]; [[#Stevens1978b|Stevens (1978b:2)]]; [[#Stevens1979a|Stevens (1979a:33)]]; [[#Stevens1979b|Stevens (1979b:6)]]; [[#Stevens1979c|Stevens (1979c:166)]]; [[#Stevens1985|Stevens (1985:153)]]; [[#Grulke2014|Grulke (2014:126)]] || Size based on essentially complete shell with only some damage to the [[aperture (mollusc)|aperture]].
|-
| ''[[Mesopuzosia|Mesopuzosia mobergi]]'' || <1.5 m || [[#KinNiedzwiedzki2012|Kin & Niedźwiedzki (2012:19)]] || 
|-
| ''[[Parapuzosia|Parapuzosia austeni]]'' || <1.5 m || [[#KinNiedzwiedzki2012|Kin & Niedźwiedzki (2012:19)]] || ''Puzosia mayoriana'' is a synonym.
|-
| ''[[Moutoniceras]]'' sp. || 1.47 m [heteromorph] || [[#Grulke2014|Grulke (2014:126)]] || In private collection of Wolfgang Grulke, according to whom it is likely the largest [[heteromorph ammonite]] ever found ([[#Grulke2014|Grulke, 2014:126]]). Originating from [[Morocco]] it is displayed in part of the original rock matrix with [[sympatric]] ''[[Gassendiceras]]'' heteromorphs. Its unrolled shell length would have exceeded 3&nbsp;m ([[#Grulke2014|Grulke, 2014:126]]). A specimen claimed to be very slightly larger at 1.48&nbsp;m was auctioned in September 2015 ([[#Anonymous2015a|[Anonymous], 2015a]]).
|-
| ''[[Parapuzosia|Parapuzosia bosei]]'' || 1.45 m || [[#ScottMoore1928|Scott & Moore (1928:276)]]; [[#Lewy2002|Lewy (2002:66)]] || From the [[Austin Chalk]] of the [[Rio Grande]] region, [[Texas]]. The largest known specimen was reported by [[#ScottMoore1928|Scott & Moore (1928:273)]] to be {{convert|4|ft|9|in|m|abbr=on}} in diameter and "impossible to extract from its matrix". The authors found "[m]any others only slightly smaller", of which three were collected in 1928 and deposited at [[Texas Christian University]] ([[#ScottMoore1928|Scott & Moore, 1928:273–274]]).
|-
| ''[[Parapuzosia|Parapuzosia americana]]'' || 1.37 m (estimate) || [[#ScottMoore1928|Scott & Moore (1928:276)]] || From the [[Austin Chalk]] of the [[Rio Grande]] region, [[Texas]].
|-
| [[Corbinites|''Corbinites occidentalis'']]|| 1.37 m || [[#Frebold1957|Frebold (1957:66)]]; [[#Westermann1966|Westermann (1966)]] || Originally assigned to the genus ''[[Titanites]]''.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Poulton |first=Terence P. |date=2023 |title=Corbinites (Subfamily Lithacoceratinae), a new genus for the giant western Canadian Late Kimmeridgian or Tithonian (Late Jurassic) ammonite Titanites occidentalis Frebold |url=https://vjs.pgi.gov.pl/article/view/34062 |journal=Volumina Jurassica |language=en |volume=21 |pages=27–38 |issn=1731-3708}}</ref> Size based on specimen consisting of an [[fossil|imprint]] and part of the last [[whorl (mollusc)|whorl]] preserved as an [[Endocast|internal mould]].
|-
| ''[[Diplomoceras|Diplomoceras maximum]]'' || >1 m [heteromorph] || [[#OliveroZinsmeister1989|Olivero & Zinsmeister (1989)]] || 
|-
| ''[[Tropaeum|Tropaeum imperator]]'' || almost 1 m || [[#Grulke2014|Grulke (2014:126)]] || Largest ammonite known from [[Australia]]. [[#Grulke2014|Grulke (2014:126)]] writes: "No exact size is available but it could be almost 1&nbsp;m across".
<!--|-
| ''[[Parapuzosia|Parapuzosia leptophyla]]'' || 1.5 m?? || 
|-
| ''[[Behemoth (ammonite)|Behemoth lapideus]]'' || >1 m || || 
|-
| ''[[Baculites|Baculites grandis]]'' || >1 m [heteromorph] || || Heteromorph ammonite with a more-or-less straight shell.-->
|-
!colspan="4" style="background-color:silver;text-align:center;" id="Belemnoidea (belemnnoids)"| [[Belemnoidea]] (belemnoids)
|- style="background-color:#cccccc;"
! scope="col" width="15%" | Species
! scope="col" width="15%" | Maximum rostrum measurements
! scope="col" width="15%" | References
! scope="col" width="55%" | Notes
|-
| ''[[Megateuthis]]'' sp. || 0.7 m {{abbr|TL|total length of rostrum}} ({{abbr|Dvms|maximum dorsoventral diameter of rostrum at stem region}}: 30&nbsp;mm; {{abbr|Dvma|maximum dorsoventral diameter of rostrum at alveolar region}}: 50&nbsp;mm) || [[#Schlegelmilch1998|Schlegelmilch (1998:1)]]; [[#WeisMariotti2007|Weis & Mariotti (2007:166)]]; [[#Ibaetal2015|Iba ''et al.'' (2015:23–24)]] || ''[[Megateuthis elliptica]]'' is "the longest belemnite species known", with rostra from the [[Humphriesianum Zone]] in [[Rumelange]] and [[Luxembourg]] reaching 60–70&nbsp;cm ([[#WeisMariotti2007|Weis & Mariotti, 2007:166]]). The whole animal is estimated to have been 3–5&nbsp;m long ([[#Eyden2003a|Eyden, 2003a]]). Fuchs and Stinnesbeck (2021) estimated total mantle length of 2.22 m.<ref name="fuchs2021">{{Cite journal |last1=Fuchs |first1=Dirk |last2=Stinnesbeck |first2=Wolfgang |date=2021-11-01 |title=Large-sized gladius-bearing octobrachians (coleoid cephalopods) in the Turonian plattenkalk of Vallecillo, Mexico |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S019566712100197X |journal=Cretaceous Research |language=en |volume=127 |pages=104949 |doi=10.1016/j.cretres.2021.104949 |bibcode=2021CrRes.12704949F |issn=0195-6671}}</ref>
|-
| [[Belemnitina]] {{abbr|''gen. et sp. indet.''|genus and species indeterminate}} || ? {{abbr|TL|total length of rostrum}} ({{abbr|Dvms|maximum dorsoventral diameter of rostrum at stem region}}: 30&nbsp;mm; {{abbr|Dvma|maximum dorsoventral diameter of rostrum at alveolar region}}: ?) || [[#Ibaetal2015|Iba ''et al.'' (2015:23)]] || Known from a single incomplete rostrum (TCSM-J1-0001) from the [[Pliensbachian]] [[Teradani Formation]] in [[Teradani]], [[Toyama Prefecture]], [[Japan]]. The specimen is missing the apical and alveolar regions and comprises only the middle (stem) region of the rostrum. It measures 45&nbsp;mm in total length by 30&nbsp;mm and 25&nbsp;mm across at the anterior and posterior ends, respectively. [[#Ibaetal2015|Iba ''et al.'' (2015:23)]] wrote: "In the [[Belemnitina]], the diameter of the alveolar region is generally larger than those of the apical and stem regions. Thus maximum rostrum diameter of the Teradani specimen is estimated to reach much more than 30&nbsp;mm."
|-
| ''[[Acroteuthis]]'' sp. || ? {{abbr|TL|total length of rostrum}} ({{abbr|Dvms|maximum dorsoventral diameter of rostrum at stem region}}: 39&nbsp;mm; {{abbr|Dvma|maximum dorsoventral diameter of rostrum at alveolar region}}: 42&nbsp;mm) || [[#Ibaetal2015|Iba ''et al.'' (2015:23)]] || One of "the largest belemnites ever observed", with a rostrum comparable to that of the indeterminate [[Belemnitina|belemnitinid]] from Teradani.
|-
| ''[[Pachyteuthis]]'' sp. || ? {{abbr|TL|total length of rostrum}} ({{abbr|Dvms|maximum dorsoventral diameter of rostrum at stem region}}: 39&nbsp;mm; {{abbr|Dvma|maximum dorsoventral diameter of rostrum at alveolar region}}: 40&nbsp;mm) || [[#Ibaetal2015|Iba ''et al.'' (2015:23)]] || One of "the largest belemnites ever observed", with a rostrum comparable to that of the indeterminate [[Belemnitina|belemnitinid]] from Teradani.
|-
| [[Belemnitina]] {{abbr|''gen. et sp. indet.''|genus and species indeterminate}} || ? {{abbr|TL|total length of rostrum}} ({{abbr|Dvms|maximum dorsoventral diameter of rostrum at stem region}}: ?; {{abbr|Dvma|maximum dorsoventral diameter of rostrum at alveolar region}}: >33&nbsp;mm) || [[#Ibaetal2015|Iba ''et al.'' (2015:23)]] || From the [[Hettangian]] [[Niranohama Formation]] of northeastern Japan. One of "the largest belemnites ever observed", with a rostrum comparable to but likely slightly smaller than that of the indeterminate [[Belemnitina|belemnitinid]] from Teradani.
|-
!colspan="4" style="background-color:silver;text-align:center;" id="Nautiloidea (nautiloids)"| [[Nautiloidea]] (nautiloids)
|- style="background-color:#cccccc;"
! scope="col" width="15%" | Species
! scope="col" width="15%" | Maximum shell length
! scope="col" width="15%" | References
! scope="col" width="55%" | Notes
|-
| ''[[Endoceras|Endoceras giganteum]]'' || 5.733 m (estimate) || [[#Klugetal2015|Klug ''et al.'' (2015:270)]] || Estimate based on incomplete 3-metre-long shell deposited at the [[Museum of Comparative Zoology]], [[Harvard University]]. [[#TeichertKummel1960|Teichert & Kummel (1960:5)]] assumed length of 8 m based on [[body chamber]]-to-[[phragmocone]] ratio of 1:2 and wrote that this was likely "the largest fragment of an endoceroid cephalopod on display anywhere in the world". However, [[#Klugetal2015|Klug ''et al.'' (2015:270)]] estimated the total length of the complete shell at 5.733 m, with a volume of 158.6 litres. From the [[Katian]] of [[New York (state)|New York]]<!--state, not city--> ([[#Klugetal2015|Klug ''et al.'', 2015:270]]). The published literature includes unconfirmed reports of even larger endocerids. [[#Frey1995|Frey (1995)]] mentioned length of 6 m as maximum size for genus ''[[Cameroceras]]'', although this author support theory that some large specimens of ''Endoceras'' belong to ''Cameroceras'' instead.
|-
| ''[[Endoceras|Endoceras proteiforme]]'' || {{convert|10|–|15|ft|m|order=flip|abbr=on}} || [[#Clarke1897|Clarke (1897:778)]]; [[#TeichertKummel1960|Teichert & Kummel (1960:1)]] || Size based on "entire shells" ([[#Clarke1897|Clarke, 1897:778]]).
|-
| ''[[Rayonnoceras|Rayonnoceras solidiforme]]'' || 2.8 m (estimate) || [[#Klugetal2015|Klug ''et al.'' (2015:270)]] || From the [[Visean]] of [[Arkansas]]. Shell volume estimated at 62.5 litres.
|-
| ''[[Deiroceras|Deiroceras hollardi]]'' || 2.6 m (estimate) || [[#Klugetal2015|Klug ''et al.'' (2015:270)]] || From the early [[Emsian]] of "[[Jebel Mdouar]]". Shell volume estimated at 68.3 litres.
|-
| ''[[Cameroceras|Cameroceras turrisoides]]'' || c. 2 m (estimate) || Kröger & Ebbestad (2014)|| From the [[Katian]] of [[Sweden]]. Estimated after maximum diameter (165&nbsp;mm).<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Kröger |first=Björn |date=2013-03-27 |title=The cephalopods of the Boda Limestone, Late Ordovician, of Dalarna, Sweden |journal=European Journal of Taxonomy |issue=41 |doi=10.5852/ejt.2013.41 |issn=2118-9773|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Kröger |first1=Björn |last2=Ebbestad |first2=Jan Ove R. |date=2014 |title=Palaeoecology and palaeogeography of Late Ordovician (Katian–Hirnantian) cephalopods of the Boda Limestone, Siljan district, Sweden |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/let.12034 |journal=Lethaia |volume=47 |issue=1 |pages=15–30 |doi=10.1111/let.12034 |bibcode=2014Letha..47...15K |issn=0024-1164}}</ref>
|-
| [[Actinocerida]] {{abbr|''gen. et sp. indet.''|genus and species indeterminate}} || 1.911 m (estimate) || [[#Klugetal2015|Klug ''et al.'' (2015:270)]] || From the [[Llandovery epoch|Llandovery]] of [[Gotland]]. Shell volume estimated at 8.9 litres.
|-
| [[Orthocerida]] {{abbr|''gen. et sp. indet.''|genus and species indeterminate}} || 1.783 m (estimate) || [[#Klugetal2015|Klug ''et al.'' (2015:270)]] || From the [[Ludlow epoch|Ludlow]] of [[Gotland]]. Shell volume estimated at 4.1 litres.
|-
| ''[[Ormoceras]]'' TUG 1308-1 || 1.72 m (estimate) || [[#Klugetal2015|Klug ''et al.'' (2015:270)]] || From the [[Sandbian]] of [[Estonia]]. Shell volume estimated at 2.7 litres.
|-
| ''[[Ormoceras|Ormoceras giganteum]]'' MB.C.11940 || 1.71 m (estimate) || [[#Klugetal2015|Klug ''et al.'' (2015:270)]] || From the [[Darriwilian]]. Shell volume estimated at 2.7 litres.
|-
| ''[[Lambeoceras|Lambeoceras lambii]]'' || 1.405 m (estimate) || [[#Leith1942|Leith (1942:130)]]; [[#TeichertKummel1960|Teichert & Kummel (1960:4)]] || Estimate based on incomplete 1.155&nbsp;m long shell.
|-
| ''[[Orthoceras|Orthoceras regarium]]'' || 1.39 m (estimate) || [[#Klugetal2015|Klug ''et al.'' (2015:270)]] || From the [[Wenlock (Silurian)|Wenlock]] of Joachimsthal.{{refn|group=nb|There are two places which bear or have borne the name Joachimsthal: [[Jáchymov]], Czech Republic and [[Joachimsthal, Brandenburg]], Germany. The citation quotes an unpublished report, and it is unclear which one it is referring to. If the report is later than 1945, when the official name of the Czech town was changed, it is most likely the place in Germany.}} Shell volume estimated at 5.1 litres.
|-
| ''[[Temperoceras|Temperoceras aequinudum]]'' || 1.333 m (estimate) || [[#Klugetal2015|Klug ''et al.'' (2015:270)]] || From the [[Lochkovian]] of "[[Ouidane Chebbi]]". Shell volume estimated at 9.2 litres.
|-
| ''[[Zeravshanoceras|Zeravshanoceras priscum]]'' || 1.299 m (estimate) || [[#Klugetal2015|Klug ''et al.'' (2015:270)]] || From the [[Eifelian]]. Shell volume estimated at 1.6 litres.
|-
| ''[[Ordogeisonoceras|Ordogeisonoceras amplicameratum]]'' || >1.25 m || [[#Frey1995|Frey (1995:40)]] || Shell diameter up to 10.5&nbsp;cm. Originally described as ''Orthoceras amplicameratum''. ''Orthoceras ludlowense'' is considered a synonym.
|-
| ''[[Cameroceras|Cameroceras hennepini]]'' || <{{convert|4|ft|m|order=flip|abbr=on}} (estimate) || [[#Clarke1897|Clarke (1897:779)]] || Size estimate based on "the most complete of the fragments which represent it".
|-
| ''[[Actinoceras|Actinoceras vaughanianum]]'' || 1.198 m (estimate) || [[#Klugetal2015|Klug ''et al.'' (2015:270)]] || From the [[Serpukhovian]] of [[Oklahoma]]. Shell volume estimated at 8.7 litres.
|-
| ''[[Polygrammoceras]]''? cf. ''P.''  sp. A || 1.13 m (estimate) || [[#Frey1995|Frey (1995:69)]] || Estimate based on a "single, very large fragment of a phragmocone". Shell diameter to 9.0&nbsp;cm.
|-
| ''[[Plagiostomoceras]]'' sp. || 1.1 m (estimate) || [[#Klugetal2015|Klug ''et al.'' (2015:270)]] || From the [[Givetian]] of [[Onondaga County, New York|Onondaga]], New York. Shell volume estimated at 0.0052 litres.
|-
| ''[[Endoceras|Endoceras decorahense]]'' || 1.06 m (estimate; phragmocone only) || [[#MillerKummel1944|Miller & Kummel (1944)]]; [[#TeichertKummel1960|Teichert & Kummel (1960:2)]] || Size estimate based on two portions of an [[Endocast|internal mould]] of the [[phragmocone]], measuring 62.5&nbsp;cm and 32&nbsp;cm, with an estimated missing middle section of 11.5&nbsp;cm.
|-
| ''[[Proterovaginoceras|Proterovaginoceras incognitum]]'' || 1 m (estimate) || [[#Klugetal2015|Klug ''et al.'' (2015:270)]] || From the [[Dapingian]] of [[Jämtland]], [[Sweden]]. Shell volume estimated at 0.8 litres.
|-
!colspan="4" style="background-color:silver;text-align:center;" id="Teuthida (squids)"| [[Teuthida]] (squids)
|- style="background-color:#cccccc;"
! scope="col" width="15%" | Species
! scope="col" width="15%" | Maximum mantle length
! scope="col" width="15%" | References
! scope="col" width="55%" | Notes
|-
| ''[[Yezoteuthis giganteus]]'' || ≈1.7 m (estimate) || [[#Tanabeetal2006|Tanabe ''et al.'' (2006:142)]] || Size estimate based on preserved [[cephalopod beak|upper jaw]] measuring 97.0&nbsp;mm in maximum length, similar to that of the largest [[giant squid]] (''Architeuthis dux''). [[#Tanabeetal2006|Tanabe ''et al.'' (2006:143)]] wrote that this species "appears to be the largest fossil coleoid ever described".
|-
!colspan="4" style="background-color:silver;text-align:center;" id="Octopodiformes"|  [[Octopodiformes]]
|- style="background-color:#cccccc;"
! scope="col" width="15%" | Species
! scope="col" width="15%" | Maximum mantle length
! scope="col" width="15%" | References
! scope="col" width="55%" | Notes
|-
| ''[[Enchoteuthis|Enchoteuthis melanae]]''|| up to 2 m (estimate) || [[#Eyden2003b|Eyden (2003b)]]; Fuchs ''et al.'' (2020)
| Total length estimated to be up to 3 m. [[Tusoteuthis|''Tusoteuthis longa'']] is likely to be invalid, and largest specimen should belongs to ''E. melanae''.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Fuchs |first1=Dirk |last2=Iba |first2=Yasuhiro |last3=Heyng |first3=Alexander |last4=Iijima |first4=Masaya |last5=Klug |first5=Christian |last6=Larson |first6=Neal L. |last7=Schweigert |first7=Günter |date=2020 |editor-last=Brayard |editor-first=Arnaud |title=The Muensterelloidea: phylogeny and character evolution of Mesozoic stem octopods |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/spp2.1254 |journal=Papers in Palaeontology |language=en |volume=6 |issue=1 |pages=31–92 |doi=10.1002/spp2.1254 |bibcode=2020PPal....6...31F |s2cid=198256507 |issn=2056-2802}}</ref>
|-
| ''[[Leptotheuthis]]'' || 1.3 m (gladius length) || Fuchs and Stinnesbeck (2021) || Reference spells "''Leptotheuthis''".<ref name="fuchs2021" />
|-
| ''[[Eromangateuthis|Eromangateuthis soniae]]'' || 1.2 m (gladius length) || Fuchs (2019) || Size based on [[Gladius (cephalopod)|gladius]] from [[Queensland]], [[Australia]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Fuchs |first=Dirk |date=2019-10-08 |title=Eromangateuthis n. gen., a new genus for a late Albian gladius-bearing giant octobrachian (Cephalopoda: Coleoidea) |journal=Paleontological Contributions |url=https://kuscholarworks.ku.edu/handle/1808/29619 |language=en |doi=10.17161/1808.29619 |issn=1946-0279|doi-access=free |hdl=1808/29619 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> A second gladius measuring more than a metre and showing possible evidence of predation by ''[[Kronosaurus]]'' is also known ([[#Eyden2003b|Eyden, 2003b]]).
|-
| ''[[Trachyteuthis]]'' || 0.8 m (gladius length) || Fuchs and Stinnesbeck (2021) || Size given for Early Cretaceous species.<ref name="fuchs2021" />
|-
| ''[[Nanaimoteuthis|Nanaimoteuthis hikidai]]'' || ≈0.7 m (estimate) ||Tanabe ''et al.'' (2015) || Estimated from hood length of lower jaw with proportion of vampire squid.<ref name="haboro" /> Authors also estimated mantle length from fossil vampyromorphs unofficially, resulting ≈1.6 m mantle length.<ref>{{Cite web |last=[[Kitakyushu Museum of Natural History & Human History]] |date=2015-03-05 |title=史上最大級のイカ類とタコ類の化石発見 |url=https://hugepdf.com/download/5b381ebc88239_pdf# |website=}}</ref>
|-
| ''[[Nanaimoteuthis|Nanaimoteuthis yokotai]]'' || ≈0.54 m (estimate) ||Tanabe ''et al.'' (2010) || Estimated from hood length of lower jaw with proportion of vampire squid.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Tanabe |first1=Kazushige |last2=Hikida |first2=Yoshinori |date=2010 |title=Jaws of a New Species of''Nanaimoteuthis''(Coleoidea: Vampyromorphida) from the Tuironian of Hokkaido, Japan |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.2517/1342-8144-14.2.145 |journal=Paleontological Research |volume=14 |issue=2 |pages=145–150 |doi=10.2517/1342-8144-14.2.145 |s2cid=128429338 |issn=1342-8144}}</ref>
|-
!colspan="4" style="background-color:silver;text-align:center;" id="Sisterdecapodiform"| [[Sister group]] of [[decapodiformes]]
|- style="background-color:#cccccc;"
! scope="col" width="15%" | Species
! scope="col" width="15%" | Maximum mantle length
! scope="col" width="15%" | References
! scope="col" width="55%" | Notes
|-
| ''[[Longibelus|Longibelus matsumotoi]]'' (?)|| 91.1-98.9&nbsp;cm (estimate) || Tanabe and Misaki (2023)
| Estimated from rostral length of lower jaw, with proportion of ''[[Spirula]]'', giant squid and colossal squid.<ref name="Tanabe 105624"/>
|}

==Anatomical superlatives==
<!--===In absolute terms===-->

===Eyes===

[[File:Giant squid eye.jpg|thumb|250px|Preserved giant squid eye]]
[[File:Deep sea squid.jpg|thumb|250px|''[[Gonatus]]'' sp. swimming past a submersible during a dive to the [[Kermadec Arc]] off [[New Zealand]]. [[Gonatidae|Gonatids]] such as this have proportionately slightly larger eyes than do giant squid.<ref name=":27">[[#Schmitzetal2013a|Schmitz ''et al.'', 2013a]]</ref>]]
The [[giant squid|giant]] and [[colossal squid]]s have the largest recorded [[cephalopod eye|eyes]] of any living animal, with a maximum diameter of at least {{convert|27|cm|in|abbr=on}} and a {{convert|9|cm|in|abbr=on}} [[pupil]].<ref name=":4"/> This is three times the size of the largest [[fish]] eyes—up to {{convert|90|mm|in|abbr=on}} in [[swordfish]]—and more than twice the diameter of the largest [[whale]] eyes—up to {{convert|109|mm|in|abbr=on}}, {{convert|61|mm|in|abbr=on}}, and {{convert|55|mm|in|abbr=on}} in [[blue whale|blue]], [[humpback whale|humpback]], and [[sperm whale]]s, respectively—which are the largest among [[vertebrate]]s.<ref name=":4"/> A large colossal squid caught in 2014 and dissected at the [[Museum of New Zealand Te Papa Tongarewa]] had eyes some {{convert|35|–|37|cm|in|abbr=on}} across.<ref>[[#Farquhar2014|Farquhar, 2014]]; [[#TePapa2014|[Te Papa], 2014]]</ref> There are unconfirmed reports from the 19th century of giant squid eyes up to {{convert|40|cm|ft|abbr=on}} across.<ref>[[#LandNilsson2012|Land & Nilsson, 2012:86]]</ref> Only the extinct [[ichthyosaur]]s are known to have approached these dimensions,<ref>[[#Motanietal1999|Motani ''et al.'', 1999]]; [[#HumphriesRuxton2002|Humphries & Ruxton, 2002]]</ref> with some species having eyes up to {{convert|35|cm|in|abbr=on}} in diameter.<ref>[[#Nilssonetal2012|Nilsson ''et al.'', 2012:687]]</ref>

Despite their size, the eyes of giant and colossal squids do not appear to be disproportionately large; they do not deviate significantly from the [[allometry|allometric relationship]] seen across other squid species.<ref>[[#Schmitzetal2013a|Schmitz ''et al.'', 2013a:45]]</ref> [[Sepiolidae|Sepiolids]] are noted for having exceptionally large eyes, which are much bigger relative to their mantle length than those of the giant squid; the same is true of ''[[Histioteuthis]]'' species.<ref name=":27"/> [[Gonatidae|Gonatids]] and the [[Loliginidae|loliginids]] ''[[Loligo]]'' and ''[[Lolliguncula]]'' also have proportionately somewhat larger eyes than ''Architeuthis''.<ref name=":27"/> Some sources state that the [[vampire squid]] (''Vampyroteuthis infernalis'') has the largest eyes of any animal relative to its size, with a {{convert|15|cm|in|abbr=on}} specimen having eyes around {{convert|2.5|cm|in|abbr=on}} in diameter.<ref>[[#Ellis1996|Ellis, 1996:177]]; [[#Anonymous2005a|[Anonymous], 2005a]]; though see [[#Youngetal2015|Young ''et al.'', 2015]]</ref>

[[File:Iridoteuthis iris.jpg|thumb|left|250px|''[[Iridoteuthis iris]]'' is an extreme example of a [[Sepiolidae|sepiolid]] with disproportionately large eyes]]
<!--[[File:Euprymna scolopes - image.pbio.v12.i02.g001.png|thumb|left|250px|''[[Euprymna scolopes]]'', the Hawaiian bobtail squid]]-->

There is some debate in the scientific community as to the evolutionary reason behind the extremely large eyes of giant and colossal squids.<ref>[[#Partridge2012|Partridge, 2012]]</ref> [[#Nilssonetal2012|Nilsson ''et al.'' (2012)]] and [[#Nilssonetal2013|Nilsson ''et al.'' (2013)]] argue that it is an [[anti-predator adaptation]] for enhanced detection of [[sperm whale]]s, with the squids picking up [[plankton]] [[bioluminescence]] triggered by moving whales, perhaps from distances exceeding {{convert|120|m|ft|abbr=on}}. [[#Schmitzetal2013a|Schmitz ''et al.'' (2013a)]] and [[#Schmitzetal2013b|Schmitz ''et al.'' (2013b)]] contend that their eyes are so large due to a [[phylogenetically conserved]] developmental pattern that governs the relative dimensions of squids and their eyes, and that any [[Fitness (biology)|fitness]] benefits their size may confer in terms of predator avoidance are the result of [[exaptation]] ("pre-adaptation").

===Neurons===

[[Squid giant axon]]s can exceed {{convert|1|mm|in|abbr=on}} in diameter: 100 to 1000 times the thickness of [[mammal]]ian [[axon]]s.<!--REF--> The axons of the [[Humboldt squid]] (''Dosidicus gigas'') are exceptional in that they can reach a diameter of as much as {{convert|1.5|mm|in|abbr=on}}, and those of ''[[Loligo forbesii]]'' can also exceed 1&nbsp;mm.<ref name=":28">[[#AdelmanGilbert1990|Adelman & Gilbert, 1990:102]]</ref> Such was the importance of Humboldt squid to [[electrophysiology]] research that when the animals migrated out of reach of [[Chile]]an fishermen in the 1970s "it led to the demise of a world-class electrophysiology laboratory" based there.<ref>[[#Scully2008|Scully, 2008]]</ref> Squid giant axon diameters do not necessarily correlate with overall body size; those of the [[giant squid]] (''Architeuthis dux'') are only {{convert|0.137|–|0.21|mm|in|abbr=on}} thick.<ref name=":28"/>

[[File:RL squid 1.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Diagram showing the three major elements (red, green, and yellow) of the squid giant neuronal system. The arrows indicate the direction of transmission from the head ganglion towards the mantle. The funnel (light blue) is the site of rapid water expulsion following mantle contraction.]]

The [[squid giant synapse]] is the largest [[chemical synapse|chemical junction]] in nature.<!--REF--> It lies in the stellate [[ganglion]] on each side of the midline, at the posterior wall of the squid's muscular mantle. Activation of this synapse triggers a synchronous contraction of the mantle musculature, causing the forceful ejection of a jet of water from the mantle. This [[jet propulsion|water propulsion]] allows the squid to move rapidly through the water and, in the case of the so-called 'flying squids', even to jump through the surface of the water (breaking the air–water barrier) to escape predators.<ref>[[#Arata1954|Arata, 1954]]; [[#Murata1988|Murata, 1988]]; [[#Maciaetal2004|Maciá ''et al.'', 2004]]; [[#Muramatsuetal2013|Muramatsu ''et al.'', 2013]]; [[#ODoretal2013|O'Dor ''et al.'', 2013]]<!--[[pleuston]]; https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4hCa0sEJl_4--></ref> Many essential elements of how all chemical synapses function were first discovered by studying the squid giant synapse.<ref>see [[#Llinas1999|Llinás, 1999]]</ref>

===Photophores===

''[[Taningia danae]]'', a very large [[Octopoteuthidae|octopoteuthid]] squid, possesses "lemon-sized" yellow [[photophore]]s at the tips of two of its [[cephalopod limb|arms]], which are the largest known light-emitting organs in the animal kingdom.<ref>[[#Ellis1998a|Ellis, 1998a:149]]; [[#Barrat2015|Barrat, 2015]]</ref> Video footage shot in 2005 in deep water off [[Japan]] shows ''T.&nbsp;danae'' emitting blinding [[Bioluminescence|flashes]] of light from these photophores as it attacks its prey.<ref>see [[#Kuboderaetal2006|Kubodera ''et al.'', 2006]]</ref> A pair of muscular lids surrounds each photophore and it is the withdrawal of these lids that produces the flashes. A large individual filmed from a remote submersible off [[Hawaii]] in 2015 can clearly be seen opening the lids to reveal its photophores.<ref>see [[#Barrat2015|Barrat, 2015]]</ref> It is believed that this highly manoeuvrable squid uses bright flashes to disorientate potential prey. The flashes may also serve to illuminate prey for easier capture or play a role in courtship and/or territorial displays.<ref>[[#Kuboderaetal2006|Kubodera ''et al.'', 2006:1033]]</ref>

<!--===In relation to body size===-->
<!--====Brain====-->

===Reproductive organs===
[[File:Onykia ingens with erect penis.jpg|thumb|250px|A dissected male specimen of ''[[Onykia ingens]]'', showing an erect {{convert|67|cm|ft|abbr=on}} penis approximating the combined length of the mantle, head, and arms]]
Extreme penis elongation has been observed in the deep water squid ''[[Onykia ingens]]''. When erect, the penis may be as long as the mantle, head, and arms combined.<ref>[[#ArkhipkinLaptikhovsky2010|Arkhipkin & Laptikhovsky, 2010:299]]; [[#Walker2010|Walker, 2010]]</ref> As such, deep water squids have the greatest known penis length relative to body size of all mobile animals, second in the entire animal kingdom only to certain sessile [[barnacle]]s.<ref>[[#ArkhipkinLaptikhovsky2010|Arkhipkin & Laptikhovsky, 2010:300]]</ref>

==See also==
* [[Deep-sea gigantism]]
* [[Gigantic octopus]]
* [[Largest body parts]]
* [[Largest organisms]]
* [[Largest prehistoric organisms]]
* [[List of colossal squid specimens and sightings]]
* [[List of giant squid specimens and sightings]]
* [[Smallest organisms]]

==Notes==
{{reflist|group=nb|1}}
{{Clear}}

==References==
===Short citations===
{{reflist}}

===Full citations===
{{refbegin|40em|indent=yes}}
* {{wikicite|ref=Anonymous1896|reference=<nowiki>[</nowiki>[[Anonymous work|Anonymous]]<nowiki>]</nowiki> (1896). Big octopus on the beach. ''[[The Florida Times-Union]]'', 1 December 1896. p.&nbsp;3.}}
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{{refend}}

==External links==
{{Col-begin}}
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* [http://squid.tepapa.govt.nz/the-squid-files/article/how-big-is-the-colossal-squid How big is the colossal squid?] — [[Museum of New Zealand Te Papa Tongarewa]]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20130724105514/http://curiosity.discovery.com/question/how-big-the-biggest-squids How big are the biggest squids?] — [[Discovery Channel]]
* [http://www.fish.govt.nz/NR/rdonlyres/5CDCF4CC-F7D3-4ED4-87D6-F3C9EDBDCD62/0/starfish_factsheet_squid.pdf World's Largest Squid] — [[Ministry of Fisheries (New Zealand)|New Zealand Ministry of Fisheries]]
* [http://deepseanews.com/2013/10/how-big-is-a-colossal-squid-really/ How Big Is A Colossal Squid Really?] and [http://www.deepseanews.com/2013/02/whale-sharks-and-giant-squids-big-or-buhit/ Whale Sharks and Giant Squids: Big or Bu!!$hit?] — Deep Sea News
* [https://figshare.com/articles/Accurately_measured_lengths_of_Architeuthis_dux/156047 Accurately measured lengths of ''Architeuthis dux''] — [[Figshare]] <!-- http://www.webcitation.org/6HH0A6IqN?url=http://figshare.com/articles/Accurately_measured_lengths_of_Architeuthis_dux/156047 -->
{{col-break|width=33%}}
* Discussions at TONMO:
** [https://www.tonmo.com/threads/old-board-archive-giant-cephalopods.128/ Giant Cephalopods]
** [https://www.tonmo.com/threads/image-the-largest-ammonite-in-the-world.2628/ The Largest Ammonite In the World]
** [https://www.tonmo.com/threads/the-opposite-of-giant.5294/ The Opposite of Giant]
* [http://malcolmscryptids.blogspot.co.uk/2016/10/really-gigantic-squid-1-official-records.html Really Gigantic Squid? 1. Official Records] and [http://malcolmscryptids.blogspot.co.uk/2016/10/really-gigantic-squid-2-big-ones-that.html Really Gigantic Squid? 2. The Big Ones That Got Away] — Malcolm's Musings: Cryptozoology
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* Blog entries by Cameron McCormick:
** [http://cameronmccormick.blogspot.co.uk/2007/03/mighty-mesonychoteuthis.html Mighty ''Mesonychoteuthis'']
** [http://cameronmccormick.blogspot.co.uk/2007/03/how-big-is-giant-squid-anyways.html How big is the Giant Squid anyways?]
** [http://cameronmccormick.blogspot.co.uk/2007/03/ludicrous-giant-squid-claims.html Ludicrous Giant Squid Claims]
** [http://cameronmccormick.blogspot.co.uk/2007/03/other-gigantic-squids.html The Other Gigantic Squids]
** [http://cameronmccormick.blogspot.co.uk/2009/01/architeuthis-gigantism-and-aging.html Cephalopod Ageing and Gigantism]
{{Col-end}}

[[Category:Animal size]]
[[Category:Biological records]]
[[Category:Giant squid]]
[[Category:Teuthology|Size]]