View source for Boiling liquid expanding vapor explosion

{{Short description|Explosion of a vessel containing liquid above and beyond boiling point}}{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2019}}
{{Use American English|date=February 2024}}
{{redirect|Bleve}}
{{see also|Boiler explosion|Steam explosion}}
[[File:Philadelphia Energy Solutions Refinery BLEVE.png|thumb|300x300px|A BLEVE–fireball at the [[2019 Philadelphia refinery explosion|Philadelphia Energy Solutions refinery]], as rendered by the [[U.S. Chemical Safety Board|CSB]]]]
A '''boiling liquid expanding vapor explosion''' ('''BLEVE''', {{IPAc-en|ˈ|b|l|ɛ|v|iː}} {{Respell|BLEV|ee}}) is an [[explosion]] caused by the rupture of a [[Pressure vessel|vessel]] containing a [[Compressed fluid|pressurized liquid]] that is or has reached a [[temperature]] sufficiently higher than its [[boiling point]] at atmospheric pressure.<ref name="Kletz">{{cite book |last=Kletz |first=Trevor |title=Critical Aspects of Safety and Loss Prevention |publisher=[[Butterworth–Heinemann]] |year=1990 |isbn=0-408-04429-2 |location=London, England |pages=43–45 |author-link=Trevor Kletz}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-07-23 |title=What Firefighters Need to Know About BLEVEs |url=https://www.firerescue1.com/firefighter-training/articles/what-firefighters-need-to-know-about-bleves-EwLDAJRkauiIfaDR/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200726205027/https://www.firerescue1.com/firefighter-training/articles/what-firefighters-need-to-know-about-bleves-EwLDAJRkauiIfaDR/ |archive-date=2020-07-26 |access-date=8 February 2024 |website=FireRescue1 |language=en}}</ref> Because the boiling point of a liquid rises with pressure, the contents of the pressurized vessel can remain a liquid as long as the vessel is intact. If the vessel's integrity is compromised, the loss of pressure drops the boiling point, which can cause the liquid to [[Boiling|convert]] to gas expanding rapidly. BLEVEs are manifestations of [[explosive boiling]].

If the gas is [[Combustibility and flammability|flammable]], as is the case with e.g., [[hydrocarbon]]s and [[Alcohol (chemistry)|alcohol]]s, further damage can be caused by the ensuing fire. However, BLEVEs do not necessarily involve fire.

==Name==
On 24 April 1957, a process reactor at a [[FM Global|Factory Mutual]] (FM) facility underwent a powerful explosion as a consequence of a rapid depressurization. It contained [[formalin]] mixed with [[phenol]]. The burst damaged the plant. However, no fire developed, as the mixture was not flammable. In the wake of the accident, researchers James B. Smith, William S. Marsh, and Wilbur L. Walls, who were employed with FM, came up with the terms "boiling liquid expanding vapor explosion" and its acronym "BLEVE".<ref name=":22">{{Cite web |last=Peterson |first=David F. |date=April 1, 2002 |title=BLEVE: Facts, Risk Factors, and Fallacies |url=http://www.fireengineering.com/articles/print/volume-155/issue-4/features/bleve-facts-risk-factors-and-fallacies.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120224074700/http://www.fireengineering.com/articles/print/volume-155/issue-4/features/bleve-facts-risk-factors-and-fallacies.html |archive-date=February 24, 2012 |website=[[Fire Engineering (magazine)|Fire Engineering]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite magazine |last=Walls |first=W.L. |date=November 1978 |title=Just What Is a BLEVE? |url=https://nfpa.access.preservica.com/uncategorized/IO_d4df034a-dbd0-4717-961f-8be7d544a431/ |access-date=February 9, 2024 |magazine=[[Fire Journal]] |publisher=[[National Fire Protection Association]] |pages=46–47 |issn=0015-2617}}</ref> The expressions did not become of common use until the early 1970s, when the [[National Fire Protection Association]]'s (NFPA) ''Fire Command'' and ''Fire Journal'' magazines started publishing articles using them.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Abbasi |first1=Tasneem |last2=Abbasi |first2=S.A. |date=July 2008 |title=The Boiling Liquid Expanding Vapour Explosion (BLEVE) Is Fifty... and Lives On! |journal=[[Journal of Loss Prevention in the Process Industries]] |volume=21 |issue=4 |pages=485–487 |doi=10.1016/j.jlp.2008.02.002 |issn=0950-4230 |eissn=1873-3352}}</ref>

==Mechanism==
There are three key elements in the formation of a BLEVE:<ref name=":0">{{cite book |author=CCPS |title=Guidelines for Vapor Cloud Explosion, Pressure Vessel Burst, BLEVE, and Flash Fire Hazards |publisher=[[American Institute of Chemical Engineers]] and [[Wiley (publisher)|John Wiley & Sons]] |year=2010 |isbn=978-0-470-25147-8 |edition=2nd |location=New York, N.Y. and Hoboken, N.J. |author-link=American Institute of Chemical Engineers}}</ref>

# A material in liquid form at a temperature sufficiently above its normal atmospheric pressure [[boiling point]].
# A containment vessel maintaining the pressure that keeps the substance in liquid form.
# A sudden loss of containment that rapidly drops the pressure.

Typically, a BLEVE starts with a vessel containing liquid held above its atmospheric-pressure boiling temperature. Many substances normally stored as liquids, such as [[carbon dioxide]], [[propane]], and other [[industrial gas]]es have boiling temperatures below room temperature when at atmospheric pressure. In the case of [[water]], a BLEVE could occur if a [[pressure vessel]] is heated beyond {{convert|100|C|F}}. That container, because the boiling water pressurizes it, must be capable of holding liquid water at very high temperatures.[[File:Bleve explosion.svg|center|600x600px|BLEVE mechanism|alt=|thumb]]If the pressurized vessel ruptures, the pressure which prevents the liquid from boiling is lost. If the rupture is catastrophic, i.e., the vessel becomes suddenly no longer capable of holding any pressure, then the liquid will find itself at a temperature far above its boiling point. This causes a portion of the liquid to [[Flash evaporation|instantaneously vaporize]] with extremely rapid expansion. Depending on temperatures, pressures and the material involved, the expansion may be so rapid that it can be classified as an [[explosion]], fully capable of inflicting severe damage on its surroundings.

For example, a tank of pressurized liquid water held at {{convert|350|C|F|sigfig=3}} might be pressurized to {{convert|10|MPa|psi|abbr=on}} above atmospheric (or gauge) pressure. If the tank containing the water were to rupture, there would for a brief moment exist a volume of liquid water which would be at:
* Atmospheric pressure
* Temperature of {{convert|350|C|F|sigfig=3}}. 
At atmospheric pressure the boiling point of water is {{convert|100|C|F}}. Liquid water at atmospheric pressure does not exist at temperatures higher than {{convert|100|C|F}}. At that moment, the water would boil and turn to vapor explosively, and the {{convert|350|C|F|sigfig=3}} liquid water turned to gas would take up significantly more volume (≈&nbsp;1,600-fold) than it did as liquid, causing a vapor explosion. Such explosions can happen when the superheated water of a [[boiler]] escapes through a crack in a boiler, causing a [[boiler explosion]].

The vaporization of liquid resulting in a BLEVE typically occurs within 1&nbsp;millisecond after a catastrophic loss of containment.<ref name=":3" />

=== Superheat limit theory ===
[[File:Propane BLEVE conditions.png|thumb|400x400px|In this diagram for [[propane]], the orange curve represents its [[vapor pressure]] as a function of temperature. The minimum temperature above which a BLEVE can occur is the abscissa of the intersection between the atmospheric pressure horizontal line (blue) and a curve here called the ''superheat-limit locus''. This is roughly a straight line with its upper limit at the gas [[Critical point (thermodynamics)#Liquid–vapor critical point|critical conditions]]. A liquid expanding along AA' does not cross the superheat-limit locus and will not BLEVE. Conversely, for sufficiently high temperatures, as in the BB' expansion, the superheat-limit locus is crossed and a BLEVE will occur.<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal |last=Reid |first=Robert C. |author-link=Robert Reid (chemical engineer) |date=23 March 1979 |title=Possible Mechanism for Pressurized-Liquid Tank Explosions or BLEVE's |journal=[[Science (journal)|Science]] |volume=203 |issue=4386 |pages=1263–1265 |doi=10.1126/science.203.4386.1263 |pmid=17841142 |bibcode=1979Sci...203.1263R |s2cid=26468355 |issn=0036-8075 |eissn=1095-9203}}</ref>]]
For a BLEVE to occur, the boiling liquid must be sufficiently [[Superheating|superheated]] upon loss of containment. For example, at a pressure of approximately {{convert|1|MPa|psi|abbr=on}}, water boils at {{convert|177|C|F}}. Superheated water released from a closed container at these conditions will not generate a BLEVE, as homogeneous [[nucleation]] of vapor bubbles is not possible.<ref name=":4" /> There is no consensus about the minimal temperature above which a BLEVE will occur. A formula proposed by [[Robert Reid (chemical engineer)|Robert Reid]] to predict it is:

<math>T_{\text{min,BLEVE}}=0.895\ T_\text{C}</math>

where ''T''<sub>C</sub> is the [[Critical point (thermodynamics)#Liquid–vapor critical point|critical temperature]] of the fluid (expressed in [[kelvin]]). The minimum BLEVE temperatures of some fluids, based on this formula, are as follows:<ref name=":2">{{Cite book |last1=Casal |first1=J. |title=The Handbook of Hazardous Materials Spills Technology |last2=Arnaldos |first2=J. |last3=Montiel |first3=H. |last4=Planas-Cuchi |first4=E. |last5=Vílchez |first5=J.A. |publisher=[[McGraw-Hill]] |year=2001 |isbn=0-07-135171-X |editor-last=Fingas |editor-first=Merv |location=New York, N.Y. |pages=22.6–22.10 |chapter=Modeling and Understanding BLEVEs}}</ref>
{{Table alignment}}
{| class="wikitable defaultleft col1left col2right col3right col4right"
! rowspan="2" |'''Substance'''
! colspan="3" |'''''T''<sub>min,BLEVE</sub>'''
|-
|'''K'''
|'''°C'''
|'''°F'''
|-
|[[Water]]
|579
|306
|583
|-
|[[Octane|''n''-Octane]]
|509
|236
|457
|-
|[[Heptane|''n''-Heptane]]
|483
|210
|410
|-
|[[Hexane|''n''-Hexane]]
|454
|181
|358
|-
|[[Pentane|''n''-Pentane]]
|421
|148
|298
|-
|[[Diethyl ether|Ethyl eter]]
|418
|145
|293
|-
|[[Phosgene]]
|407
|134
|273
|-
|[[Butane|''n''-Butane]]
|381
|108
|226
|-
|[[Chlorine]]
|375
|102
|216
|-
|[[Ammonia]]
|363
|90
|194
|-
|[[Propane]]
|331
|58
|136
|-
|[[Propylene]]
|327
|54
|129
|-
|[[Ethane]]
|273
|0
| 32
|-
|[[Carbon  dioxide]]
|272
| –1
| 30
|-
|[[Ethylene]]
|253
| –20
| –4
|-
|[[Methane]]
|171
| –102
| –152
|}
According to Reid, BLEVE will occur, more in general, if the expansion crosses a "superheat-limit locus". In Reid's model, this curve is essentially the fluid's [[spinodal|spinodal curve]] as represented in a pressure–temperature diagram, and the BLEVE onset is a manifestation of [[explosive boiling]], where the spinodal is crossed "from above", i.e., via sudden depressurization. However, direct correspondence between the superheat limit and the spinodal has not been proven experimentally. In practical BLEVEs, the way the pressure vessel fails may influence decisively the way the expansion takes place, for example causing pressure waves and non-uniformities. Additionally, there may be stratification in the liquid, due to local temperature variations. Because of this, it is possible for BLEVEs to occur at temperatures less than those predicted with Reid's formula.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Heymes |first1=Frederic |last2=Eyssette |first2=Roland |last3=Lauret |first3=Pierre |last4=Hoorelbeke |first4=Pol |date=September 2020 |title=An Experimental Study of Water BLEVE |journal=[[Process Safety and Environmental Protection]] |volume=141 |pages=49–60 |doi=10.1016/j.psep.2020.04.029 |bibcode=2020PSEP..141...49H |issn=0957-5820 |eissn=1744-3598}}</ref>

=== Physical BLEVEs ===
The term BLEVE is often associated to explosive fires from pressure vessels containing a [[Combustibility and flammability|flammable]] liquid. However, a BLEVE can occur even with a non-flammable substance such as water,<ref>{{cite web |title=Guide to Hot Water Heater Temperature Pressure Relief Valves |url=http://www.inspect-ny.com/plumbing/Water_Heater_Relief_Valves.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120801064302/http://inspectapedia.com/plumbing/Water_Heater_Relief_Valves.htm |archive-date=1 August 2012 |access-date=12 July 2011 |website=InspectAPedia |publisher=}}</ref> [[liquid nitrogen]], [[liquid helium]] or other [[refrigerant]]s or [[cryogen|cryogenic]]s. Such materials can go through purely physical BLEVEs, not entailing flames or other chemical reactions. In the case of unignited BLEVEs of liquefied gases, rapid cooling due to the absorption of the [[enthalpy of vaporization]] is a hazard that can cause [[frostbite]]. [[Inert gas asphyxiation|Asphyxiation]] from the expanding vapors is also possible, if the vapor cloud is not rapidly dispersed, as can be the case inside a building, or in a trough in the case of heavier-than-air gasses. The vapors can also be [[List of highly toxic gases|toxic]], in which case harm and possibly death can occur at relatively low concentrations and, therefore, even far from the source.

=== BLEVE–fireball ===
If a flammable substance, however, is subject to a BLEVE, it can ignite upon release, either due to friction, mechanical spark or other point sources, or from a pre-existing fire that had engulfed the pressure vessel and caused it to fail in the first place. In such a case, the burning vapors will further expand, adding to the force of the explosion. Furthermore, a very significant amount of the escaped fluid will burn in a matter of seconds in a raising fireball, which will generate extremely high levels of [[thermal radiation]]. While the blast effects can be devastating, a flammable substance BLEVE typically causes more damage due to the fireball thermal radiation than the [[Overpressure|blast overpressure]].

==Effect of impinging fires==
BLEVEs are often caused by an external fire near the storage vessel causing heating of the contents and pressure build-up. While tanks are often designed to withstand great pressure, constant heating can cause the metal to weaken and eventually fail. If the tank is being heated in an area where there is no liquid (such as near its top), it may rupture faster because the boiling liquid does not afford cooling in that area. Pressure vessels are usually equipped with [[relief valve]]s that vent off excess pressure, but the tank can still fail if the pressure is not released quickly enough.<ref name="Kletz" /> A pressure vessel is designed to withstand the set pressure of its relief valves, but only if its mechanical integrity is not weakened as it can be in the case of an impinging fire.{{sfnp|Mannan|2012|p=1538}} In an impinging fire scenario, flammable vapors released in the BLEVE will ignite upon release, forming a fireball. The origin of the impinging fire may be from a release of flammable fluid from the vessel itself, or from an external source, including releases from nearby tanks and equipment. For example, rail [[Tank car|tank cars]] have BLEVEd under the effect of a [[jet fire]] from the open relief valve of another [[Derailment|derailed]] tank car.{{sfnp|Mannan|2012|p=1539}}

== Hazards ==
The main damaging effects of a BLEVE are three: the [[blast wave]] from the explosion; the [[Explosion#Fragmentation|projection of fragments, or missiles]], from the pressure vessel; and the [[thermal radiation]] from the fireball, where one occurs.{{sfnp|Mannan|2012|p=1538}}

Horizontal cylindrical ("bullet") tanks tend to rupture longitudinally. This causes the failed tank and its fragments to get propelled like rockets and travel long distances.{{sfnp|Mannan|2012|p=1541}} At [[Feyzin disaster|Feyzin]], three of the propelled fragments weighed in excess of 100&nbsp;tons and were thrown 150–350&nbsp;meters (490–1150&nbsp;ft) from the source of the explosion. One bullet tank at [[San Juanico disaster|San Juanico]] travelled {{Convert|1200|m|mi|sp=us}} in the air before landing, possibly the farthest ever for a BLEVE missile.{{sfnp|Mannan|2012|p=1542}} Fragments can impact on other tanks or equipment, which may result in a [[Domino effect accident|domino effect]] propagation of the accidental sequence.<ref name=":3" />

Fireballs can rise to significant heights above ground.{{sfnp|Mannan|2012|p=1541}} They are spheroidal when developed and rise from the ground in a [[Mushroom cloud|mushroom shape]].<ref name=":3" /> The diameter of fireballs at San Juanico was estimated at 200–300&nbsp;meters (660–980&nbsp;ft), with a duration of around 20&nbsp;seconds. Such massive fires can injure people at distances of hundreds of meters (e.g., 300&nbsp;m (980&nbsp;ft) at Feyzin and 400&nbsp;m (1310&nbsp;ft) at San Juanico).{{sfnp|Mannan|2012|p=1541}}

An additional hazard from BLEVE-fireball events is the formation of secondary fires, by direct exposure to the fireball thermal radiation, as pool fires from fuel that does not get combusted in the fireball, or from the scattering of blazing tank fragments.{{sfnp|Mannan|2012|p=1542}}<ref name=":3" /> Another secondary effect of importance is the dispersion of a toxic gas cloud, if the vapors involved are toxic and do not catch fire upon release.<ref name=":3" /> [[Chlorine]], [[ammonia]] and [[phosgene]] are example of toxic gases that underwent BLEVE in past accidents and produced toxic clouds as a consequence.<ref name=":3" />

== Safety measures ==
{{See also|Liquefied petroleum gas#Fire/explosion risk and mitigation}}
* Maintenance of pressure tanks to avoid damage or corrosion<ref name="Transport-Canada-BLEVE">{{cite web |author= |date=26 November 2018 |title=BLEVE – Response and Prevention |url=https://tc.canada.ca/en/dangerous-goods/transportation-dangerous-goods/bleve-response-prevention |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200717011729/https://tc.canada.ca/en/dangerous-goods/transportation-dangerous-goods/bleve-response-prevention |archive-date=July 17, 2020 |access-date=February 8, 2020 |website=[[Transport Canada]] |publisher=}}</ref>
* [[Process plant shutdown systems#Emergency depressurization (EDP)|Emergency depressurization]]<ref name=":0" />
* [[Relief valve|Pressure relief valves]]<ref name="CameoChemicals-NOAA">{{cite web |author= |date=2016 |title=BLEVE Safety Precautions |url=https://cameochemicals.noaa.gov/erg_guides/Page_368.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190422212922/https://cameochemicals.noaa.gov/erg_guides/Page_368.pdf |archive-date=22 April 2019 |access-date=July 16, 2020 |website=[[National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration]] |publisher=}}</ref>
* [[Passive fire protection]]<ref name="CameoChemicals-NOAA" /><ref name="Transport-Canada-BLEVE" />
* Water spray cooling<ref name="CameoChemicals-NOAA" /><ref name="Transport-Canada-BLEVE" />

== Notable accidents ==
{{Main article|List of boiling liquid expanding vapor explosions}}

Notable BLEVE accidents include:

* 13 December 1926, [[Saint-Auban]], France – A 25&nbsp;ton [[chlorine]] BLEVE killed 19 in the first accident recognized as a boiling liquid expanding vapor explosion.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last=Prugh |first=Richard W. |date=1991 |title=Quantitative Evaluation of 'BLEVE' Hazards |journal=[[Journal of Fire Protection Engineering]] |volume=3 |issue=1 |pages=9–24 |doi=10.1177/104239159100300102 |issn=1042-3915 |eissn=1532-172X}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=13 December 2015 |title=13 décembre 1926, 11 h 55 : L'explosion mortelle |trans-title=13 December 1926, 11:55{{nbsp}}am: The Deadly Explosion |url=https://www.laprovence.com/article/edition-alpes/3712644/13-decembre-1926-11-h-55-lexplosion-mortelle.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240207054901/https://www.laprovence.com/article/edition-alpes/3712644/13-decembre-1926-11-h-55-lexplosion-mortelle.html |archive-date=7 February 2024 |access-date=7 February 2024 |work=[[La Provence]] |language=fr}}</ref>
* 24 December 1939, [[Zărnești]], Romania – A rail [[tank car]] containing a [[butadiene]] (80%) and [[butene]] (20%) mixture BLEVEd and caused a fireball. It killed 60 people.<ref name=":1" />{{sfnp|Lees|1996|p=appendix 1/9}}
* 29 July 1943, [[Ludwigshafen]], Germany – A chlorine tank car exploded at a [[BASF]] plant, killing 57.<ref name=":1" />{{sfnp|Lees|1996|pp=appendix 1/10, 27}}
* 28 July 1948, Ludwigshafen, Germany – Another tank car in the same plant, this time containing [[diethyl ether]], exploded killing 209.<ref name=":1" /><ref>{{Cite web |title=The Explosion of 1948 |url=https://www.basf.com/global/en/who-we-are/history/explosions-1943-48/explosion1948.html#text1308151406 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240207065019/https://www.basf.com/global/en/who-we-are/history/explosions-1943-48/explosion1948.html |archive-date=7 February 2024 |access-date=7 February 2024 |website=[[BASF]]}}</ref>{{sfnp|Lees|1996|p=appendix 1/30}}
* 7 July 1951, [[Newark, New Jersey|Newark]], New Jersey, U.S. – Seventy tanks of liquefied petroleum gas (LPG), for a total of 2600&nbsp;tons, exploded at [[Port Newark–Elizabeth Marine Terminal|Port Newark]]. There were no fatalities.<ref name=":1" />{{sfnp|Lees|1996|p=appendix 1/32}}
* 8 January 1957, [[Montreal]], Quebec, Canada – At a [[Shell plc|Shell]] refinery, 5100&nbsp;tons of LPG stored in several tanks exploded, causing one fatality.<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last1=Abbasi |first1=Tasneem |last2=Abbasi |first2=S.A. |date=27 September 2006 |title=The Boiling Liquid Expanding Vapour Explosion (BLEVE): Mechanism, Consequence Assessment, Management |journal=[[Journal of Hazardous Materials]] |volume=141 |issue=3 |pages=489–519 |doi=10.1016/j.jhazmat.2006.09.056 |pmid=17113225 |issn=0304-3894 |eissn=1873-3336}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Dubuc |first=André |date=18 November 2015 |title=Plusieurs projets compromis près de Suncor |trans-title=Several Projects Compromised Next to Suncor |url=https://www.lapresse.ca/actualites/montreal/201511/18/01-4922133-plusieurs-projets-compromis-pres-de-suncor.php |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151119141342/https://www.lapresse.ca/actualites/montreal/201511/18/01-4922133-plusieurs-projets-compromis-pres-de-suncor.php |archive-date=19 November 2015 |access-date=9 February 2024 |work=[[La Presse (Canadian newspaper)|La Presse]] |language=fr}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Selwood |first=Brian |date=8 January 1957 |title=Feu et explosions dans une raffinerie |trans-title=Fire and Explosions at a Refinery |url=https://diffusion.banq.qc.ca/pdfjs-3.10.111-dist_banq/web/pdf.php/-LE2lsXam-OoPU0_0Ln4xw.pdf |access-date=9 February 2024 |work=[[La Tribune (Sherbrooke)|La Tribune]] |page=1 |language=fr |volume=47e année |issue=273 |issn=0832-3194}}</ref>
* 28 March 1960, [[Glasgow]], Scotland, United Kingdom – The [[Cheapside Street whisky bond fire]]: A warehouse storing 3900&nbsp;tons of [[whisky]] experienced a fire in which several casks underwent BLEVEs. There were 19 fatalities.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Cheapside Street fire, Glasgow – 28th March 1960 |url=https://www.fbu.org.uk/history/cheapside-street-fire-glasgow |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201024041535/https://www.fbu.org.uk/history/cheapside-street-fire-glasgow |archive-date=October 24, 2020 |access-date=February 8, 2024 |website=[[Fire Brigades Union]]}}</ref>
* 4 January 1966, [[Feyzin]], France – The [[Feyzin disaster]]: 1000&nbsp;tons of LPG exploded at an [[Elf Aquitaine|Elf]] refinery, causing 18 fatalities.<ref name=":1" />
* 30 March 1972, [[Rio de Janeiro]], Brazil – {{interlanguage link|Explosão na Reduc em 1972|lt=1972 Reduc explosion|pt}}: 1000&nbsp;tons of LPG exploded at a refinery, killing 28.<ref name=":1" /><ref>{{Cite web |last=Costa |first=Pierre |title=O maior acidente da Refinaria Duque de Caxias (RJ) – Brasil: um estudo geográfico-histórico |trans-title=The Largest Accident at the Duque de Caxias Refinery (RJ), Brazil: A Geographical-historical Study |url=http://observatoriogeograficoamericalatina.org.mx/egal13/Procesosambientales/Impactoambiental/39.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160504001626/http://observatoriogeograficoamericalatina.org.mx/egal13/Procesosambientales/Impactoambiental/39.pdf |archive-date=4 May 2016 |website=observatoriogeograficoamericalatina.org.mx |language=pt}}</ref>
* 5 July 1973, [[Kingman, Arizona|Kingman]], Arizona, U.S. – The [[Kingman explosion]]: An LPG-laden tank car BLEVEd, causing 13 fatalities.<ref name=":1" /><ref>{{Cite web |date=July 26, 2021 |title=Memorial Monday – Kingman Explosion (AZ) |url=https://www.firehero.org/2021/07/26/memorial-monday-kingman-explosion/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230321175453/https://www.firehero.org/2021/07/26/memorial-monday-kingman-explosion/ |archive-date=March 21, 2023 |access-date=February 8, 2024 |website=National Fallen Firefighters Foundation}}</ref>
* 8 December 1977, [[Cartagena, Colombia|Cartagena]], Colombia – A process reactor burst in an [[ammonia]] BLEVE that killed 30.<ref name=":1" /><ref>{{Cite report |url=https://www.cartagena.gov.co/sites/default/files/2023-06/Emergencias%20Recientes%20en%20la%20historia%20de%20Cartagena%201965-2021%20v2.pdf |title=Emergencias de la historia reciente en el distrito de Cartagena 1965–2021 |publisher=Oficina Asesora para la Gestión del Riesgo de Desastres de Cartagena |edition=2nd |language=es|trans-title=Emergencies in Recent History in the Cartagena District 1965–2021 |access-date=9 February 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230615225641/https://www.cartagena.gov.co/sites/default/files/2023-06/Emergencias%20Recientes%20en%20la%20historia%20de%20Cartagena%201965-2021%20v2.pdf |archive-date=15 June 2023 |url-status=live}}</ref>
* 23 February 1978, [[Waverly, Tennessee|Waverly]], Tennessee, U.S. – The [[Waverly, Tennessee, tank car explosion|Waverly tank car explosion]]: An LPG tank car exploded, killing 16.
* 11 July 1978, [[Alcanar]], Spain – The [[Los Alfaques disaster]]: In the worst ever [[tank truck]] BLEVE and road accident involving hazardous materials, a vehicle laden with 25&nbsp;tons of [[propylene]] suffered a mechanical failure next to a crowded camping site. The BLEVE killed 216 people.
* 30 May 1978, [[Texas City, Texas|Texas City]], Texas, U.S. – Multiple storage tanks holding 1500&nbsp;tons of LPG exploded, killing seven people.<ref name=":1" /><ref>{{Cite report |url=https://www.marsh.com/content/dam/marsh/Documents/PDF/UK-en/100-largest-losses.pdf |title=The 100 Largest Losses 1978–2017: Large Property Damage Losses in the Hydrocarbon Industry |date=March 2018 |publisher=[[Marsh (company)|Marsh]] |edition=25th |page=15 |access-date=9 February 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220121055735/https://www.marsh.com/content/dam/marsh/Documents/PDF/UK-en/100-largest-losses.pdf |archive-date=21 January 2022 |url-status=live}}</ref>
* 30 August 1972, [[Good Hope, Louisiana|Good Hope]], Louisiana, U.S. – A BLEVE developed after a ship collision between MV&nbsp;''Inca Tupac Yupanqui'' and [[butane]]-laden barge TB&nbsp;''Panama City''. There were 12 fatalities.<ref name=":1" /><ref>{{Cite report |url=https://www.dco.uscg.mil/Portals/9/DCO%20Documents/5p/CG-5PC/INV/docs/boards/incatupac.pdf |title=Marine Casualty Report: ''MV Inca Tupac Yupanqui'', TB ''Panama City'', Tug ''Capt. Norman''; Collision in The Lower Mississippi River on 30 August 1979 with Loss of Life |date=10 May 1983 |publisher=[[United States Coast Guard|U.S. Coast Guard]] |series=Report no. USCG 16732/01281 |location=Washington, D.C. |access-date=9 February 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220302042555/http://www.dco.uscg.mil/Portals/9/DCO%20Documents/5p/CG-5PC/INV/docs/boards/incatupac.pdf |archive-date=2 March 2022 |url-status=live}}</ref>
* 1 August 1981, [[Cerritos, San Luis Potosí|Cerritos]], San Luis Potosí, Mexico – A rail tank car carrying chlorine exploded, causing 29 fatalities.<ref name=":1" /><ref>{{Cite news |last=Valero |first=Francisco |date=3 August 2021 |title=Estación Montaña, a 40 años de la tragedia |trans-title=Montaña Train Station, 40 Years On from the Tragedy |url=https://www.plurinominal.com.mx/?p=14032 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240209044201/https://www.plurinominal.com.mx/?p=14032 |archive-date=9 February 2024 |access-date=9 February 2024 |work=Plurinominal |language=es}}</ref>
* 23 July 1984, [[Romeoville, Illinois|Romeoville]], Illinois, U.S. – The [[1984 Romeoville petroleum refinery disaster|Romeoville petroleum refinery disaster]] killed 15 people.<ref name=":3" />
* 19 November 1984, [[San Juan Ixhuatepec]], Mexico – The [[San Juanico disaster]]: In the worst ever BLEVE accident, as well as one the [[List of accidents and disasters by death toll#Industrial|deadliest industrial disasters]] ever occurred, more than 500 people died when a series of BLEVEs hit a [[Pemex]] LPG storage terminal.<ref name=":1" /><ref>{{cite web |date=19 November 1984 |title=PEMEX LPG Terminal, Mexico City, Mexico. 19th November 1984 |url=https://www.hse.gov.uk/comah/sragtech/casepemex84.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230924050629/https://www.hse.gov.uk/comah/sragtech/casepemex84.htm |archive-date=September 24, 2023 |access-date=February 8, 2024 |website=[[Health and Safety Executive]]}}</ref>
* 28 January 1986, above [[Merritt Island, Florida|Merritt Island]], Florida, U.S. – The [[Space Shuttle Challenger disaster|Space Shuttle ''Challenger'' disaster]]: The disintegration of the spacecraft was caused by the BLEVE of the [[liquid hydrogen]] and [[Liquid oxygen|oxygen]] [[Space Shuttle external tank|external tank]] compartments.<ref name=":1" /><ref>{{Cite book |last=Leiber |first=Carl-Otto |title=Assessment of Safety and Risk with a Microscopic Model of Detonation |publisher=[[Elsevier|Elsevier Science]] |year=2003 |isbn=978-0-444-51332-8 |location=Amsterdam, The Netherlands |pages=305 |doi=10.1016/B978-0-444-51332-8.X5000-9}}</ref>
* 23 December 1988, [[Memphis, Tennessee|Memphis]], Tennessee, U.S. – The [[Memphis tanker truck disaster|Memphis LPG tank truck disaster]] killed nine people.<ref>{{Cite report |url=https://rosap.ntl.bts.gov/view/dot/45828/dot_45828_DS1.pdf |title=Railroad Accident Report: Derailment of Louisville & Nashville Railroad Company's Train No. 584 and Subsequent Rupture of Tank Car Containing Liquefied Petroleum Gas – Waverly, Tennessee – February 22, 1978 |date=8 February 1979 |publisher=[[National Transportation Safety Board]] |series=Report no. NTSB-RAR-79-1 |location=Washington, D.C. |doi=10.21949/1510178 |access-date=February 8, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230731224501/https://rosap.ntl.bts.gov/view/dot/45828/dot_45828_DS1.pdf |archive-date=31 July 2023 |url-status=live |doi-access=free |author1=United States. Interstate Commerce Commission }}</ref>
* 19 April 1993, [[Waco, Texas|Waco]], Texas, U.S. – A contributor to the aftermath of the [[Waco siege]] was the BLEVE of an LPG tank caused by the intervention of the military.<ref>{{Cite report |url=https://www.apologeticsindex.org/pdf/havens.pdf |title=Analysis of Flammability Hazards Associated with the Use of Tear Gas at the Branch Davidian Complex – Waco, Texas – April 19, 1993 |last=Havens |first=Jerry |date=12 September 2000 |location=Fayetteville, Ark. |access-date=10 February 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190623172237/http://www.apologeticsindex.org/pdf/havens.pdf |archive-date=23 June 2019 |url-status=live}}</ref>
* 4 March 1994, [[Weyauwega, Wisconsin|Weyauwega]], Wisconsin, U.S. – The [[Weyauwega, Wisconsin, derailment|Weyauwega derailment]], no fatalities.
* 22 June 2002, [[Tivissa]], Spain – In the first ever reported [[liquefied natural gas]] (LNG) BLEVE, a tank truck exploded. Only the driver perished.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Planas-Cuchi |first1=Eulàlia |last2=Gasulla |first2=Núria |last3=Ventosa |first3=Albert |last4=Casal |first4=Joaquim |date=2004 |title=Explosion of a Road Tanker Containing Liquified Natural Gas |journal=[[Journal of Loss Prevention in the Process Industries]] |volume=17 |issue=4 |pages=315–321 |doi=10.1016/j.jlp.2004.05.005 |bibcode=2004JLPPI..17..315P |issn=0950-4230 |eissn=1873-3352}}</ref>
* 10 August 2008, [[Toronto]], Ontario, Canada – The [[Toronto propane explosion]] at the Sunrise Propane Industrial Gases killed two people.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Lawlor |first=Maureen |date=August 10, 2018 |title=10-year Anniversary of the Sunrise Propane Explosion |url=https://toronto.citynews.ca/2018/08/10/10-year-anniversary-sunrise-propane-explosion/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180811113518/https://toronto.citynews.ca/2018/08/10/10-year-anniversary-sunrise-propane-explosion/ |archive-date=August 11, 2018 |access-date=February 8, 2024 |work=[[CityNews]]}}</ref>
* 27 August 2012, [[Chala, Kannur|Chala]], India – The [[Chala LPG tanker disaster|Chala LPG tank truck disaster]]: An LPG tank truck road accident in the state of [[Kerala]] caused 20 fatalities among the bystanders.
* 13 June 2013, [[Geismar, Louisiana|Geismar]], Louisiana, U.S. – The [[Williams Olefins Plant explosion|Williams Olefins explosion]] killed two plant operators when a propane heat exchanger burst open.<ref>{{Cite report |url=https://www.csb.gov/file.aspx?DocumentId=6004 |title=Williams Geismar Olefins Plant: Reboiler Rupture and Fire – Geismar, Louisiana |date=October 2016 |publisher=[[U.S. Chemical Safety Board|U.S. Chemical Safety and Hazard Investigation Board]] |location=Washington, D.C. |access-date=22 February 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210331064851/http://www.csb.gov/file.aspx?DocumentId=6004 |archive-date=31 March 2021 |url-status=live |series=Report no. 2013-03-I-LA}}</ref>
* 21 July 2014, [[Lice, Turkey|Lice]], Turkey – An LPG tank truck explosion caused the death of 34 people.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Durmuş |first1=Ahmet |last2=Çetinyokuş |first2=Saliha |date=2022 |title=Modeling the Physical Effects of the LPG Tanker Accident That Occurred in Diyarbakır Lice |journal=[[Gazi University Journal of Science ‒ Part C: Design and Technology]] |language=tr |volume=10 |issue=4 |pages=748‒764 |doi=10.29109/gujsc.1147339 |eissn=2147-9526 |doi-access=free}}</ref>
* 6 August 2018, [[Bologna]], Italy – Two people perished in the [[2018 Borgo Panigale explosion|Borgo Panigale explosion]], an LPG tank truck blast caused by a road accident.<ref>{{Cite conference |last=Cocchi |first=Giovanni |date=June 19–24, 2022 |title=The Bologna LPG BLEVE |url=http://www.icders.org/ICDERS2022/abstracts/ICDERS2022-197.pdf |conference=28th International Colloquium on the Dynamics of Explosions and Reactive Systems (ICDERS) |series=Paper 197 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240206070248/http://www.icders.org/ICDERS2022/abstracts/ICDERS2022-197.pdf |archive-date=6 February 2024 |access-date=6 February 2024 |conference-url=http://www.icders.org/ICDERS2022/index.html}}</ref>
* 21 June 2019, [[Philadelphia]], Pennsylvania, U.S. – The [[2019 Philadelphia refinery explosion]]: Following a fire, a process vessel containing a [[butene]], [[isobutane]] and [[Butane|''n''-butane]] suffered a massive BLEVE.
* 24 December 2022, [[Boksburg]], South Africa – The [[Boksburg explosion]], an LPG tank truck BLEVE that killed 41.

==See also==
*[[Boiler explosion]]
*[[Steam explosion]]
*[[Deflagration]]
*[[Explosive boiling]]
*[[Rapid phase transition]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

=== Sources ===

* {{Cite book |last=Lees |first=Frank P. |title=Loss Prevention in the Process Industries |publisher=[[Butterworth-Heinemann]] |year=1996 |isbn=0-7506-1547-8 |edition=2nd |location=Oxford, England |author-link=Frank Lees}}
* {{Cite book |last=Mannan |first=Sam |title=Lees' Loss Prevention in the Process Industries |publisher=[[Butterworth-Heinemann]] |year=2012 |isbn=978-0-12-397189-0 |edition=4th |location=Kidlington, England and Waltham, Mass. |author-link=M. Sam Mannan}}

==Further reading==
{{Cite web |last=Roberts |first=Michael W. |date=2000 |title=Analysis of Boiling Liquid Expanding Vapor Explosion (BLEVE) Events at DOE Sites |url=http://www.efcog.org/wg/sa/docs/minutes/archive/2000%20Conference/papers_pdf/roberts.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121020191049/http://www.efcog.org/wg/sa/docs/minutes/archive/2000%20Conference/papers_pdf/roberts.pdf |archive-date=October 20, 2012 |website=Energy Facility Contractors Group (EFCOG)}}

==External links==
{{Wiktionary}}
{{Commons category|BLEVE}}

* [http://www.propane101.com/explodingpropanetanks.htm Exploding Propane Tanks] – Description of circumstances required to cause a propane tank BLEVE.
* {{YouTube|id=sl-JgyQA7u0|title=BLEVE Demo}} – Controlled BLEVE demo
* {{YouTube|id=wcmmLvAYqkI|title=Huge Explosions}} – Video of propane and isobutane BLEVEs from a train derailment at [[Murdock, Illinois]] (3 September 1983)
* {{YouTube|id=Ljw4sEvLkEU|title=Moscow Ring Road Accident}} – BLEVEs of dozens of LPG canisters after a road accident in Moscow
* {{YouTube|id=pan1t4WdYbc|title=Propane BLEVE}} – BLEVE from the [[Wikinews:Massive explosion in North Toronto, Ontario|Toronto propane depot fire]]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20200717011729/https://tc.canada.ca/en/dangerous-goods/transportation-dangerous-goods/bleve-response-prevention Training video for emergency response personnel (archived)] by [[Transport Canada]].
{{Fire protection}}
[[Category:Explosions]]
[[Category:Fire]]
[[Category:Types of fire]]
[[Category:Process safety]]