View source for Agriculture in California

{{Short description|Sector of the Californian economy}}
{{Multiple issues|
{{Very long|date=June 2023|words=17,000}}
{{Cleanup reorganize|date=July 2023}}
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{{Use mdy dates|date=February 2023}}
{{Use American English|date=February 2023}}
[[File:Almonds macro 3.jpg|thumb|California produces [[almond]]s worth $5.3&nbsp;billion every year. That is 100% of commercial almonds in the United States, 100% of all of North America, and 80% of commercial almonds around the world.]]

Agriculture is a significant sector in [[Economy of California|California's economy]], producing nearly {{US$|50|link=yes}}{{nbsp}}billion in revenue {{as of|2018|alt=in 2018}}. There are more than 400 [[commodity]] crops grown across [[California]], including a significant portion of all [[fruit]]s, [[vegetable]]s, and [[nut (fruit)|nut]]s in the [[Agriculture in the United States|United States]].<ref name="California Department of Food and Agriculture">{{Cite web |url=https://www.cdfa.ca.gov/statistics/ |title=California Agricultural Production Statistics: 2018 Crop Year |website=[[California Department of Food and Agriculture]] |language=en-US |access-date=September 26, 2019}}</ref> {{as of|2017|alt=In 2017}}, there were 77,100 unique farms and ranches in the state, operating across {{convert|25.3|e6acre|ha|abbr=off|sp=us}} of land. The average farm size was {{convert|328|acre|ha}}, significantly less than the average farm size in the{{nbsp}}U.S. of {{convert|444|acre|ha}}.<ref name="California Department of Food and Agriculture" />

Because of its scale, and the naturally arid climate, the agricultural sector uses about [[Water in California|40&nbsp;percent of California's water consumption]].<ref name="Public Policy Institute of California" /> The agricultural sector is also connected to other negative environmental and health impacts, including being one of the principal sources of [[water pollution]].

==Value==
[[File:Sacramento rice fields.jpg|thumb|upright=1.15|right|Rice paddies just north of [[Sacramento, California|Sacramento]]]]

The table below shows the top 21 commodities, by dollar value, produced in California in 2017.<ref name="California Department of Food and Agriculture" /> Between 2016 and 2017, there were increases by more than 2% in total value for the following crops: almonds, dairy, grapes and cattle. The largest increase was seen in [[California Almond Growers|almond]] sales, which increased by 10.9% from 2016 to 2017, due to both increases in crop volume produced and the average market price for a pound of almonds. Dairy sales increased 8.2% from 2016 to 2017 due to an increase in the average price for milk, despite a slight decrease in total milk production. Grape sales increased by 3.1% from 2016 to 2017 due to an increase in price per ton of grape (from {{convert|832|$/ST}} in 2016 to {{convert|847|$/ST}} in 2017). Cattle sales also increased by 2.7% from 2016 to 2017.<ref name="cdfa">{{cite report |title=California Agricultural Statistics Review, 2016-2017 |website=[[California Department of Food and Agriculture]] |url=https://www.cdfa.ca.gov/Statistics/PDFs/2016-17AgReport.pdf |access-date=December 21, 2018}}</ref><ref name="Bertone-2017">{{Cite web |url=https://www.farmflavor.com/california/californias-top-10-ag-products/ |title=Top 10 California Ag Products (Infographic) |last=Bertone |first=Rachel |date=June 26, 2017 |website=Farm Flavor |language=en-US |access-date=March 23, 2019}}</ref>

{| class="wikitable sortable"
!Crop
! data-sort-type=currency | Annual value '''(billions of USD)'''
|-
! [[Dairy product|Dairy]] (milk and cream)
|$6.56
|-
!{{section link||Grapes}}
|$5.79
|-
!{{section link||Almonds}}
|$5.60
|-
!{{section link||Cannabis}} (legal sales)
|$3.1
|-
!{{section link||Strawberries}}
|$3.1
|-
![[Cattle|Cattle and Calves]]
|$2.63
|-
!{{section link||Lettuce}}
|$2.51
|-
![[Walnut]]s
|$1.59
|-
!{{section link||Tomatoes}}
|$1.05
|-
![[Pistachio]]s
|$1.01
|-
![[Broiler]]s (poultry)
|$0.94
|-
![[Orange (fruit)|Oranges]]
|$0.93
|-
!{{section link||Broccoli}}
|$0.85
|-
![[Hay]]
|$0.76
|-
![[Rice]]
|$0.68
|-
![[Carrot]]s
|$0.62
|-
![[Lemon]]s
|$0.61
|-
![[Tangerine]]s
|$0.54
|-
![[Cotton]]
|$0.48
|-
!{{section link||Raspberries}}
|$0.45
|-
![[Garlic]]
|$0.39<br />
|}

[[File:Packard apricot orchard in winter.jpg|thumb|[[David Packard]]'s home and apricots]]

==Specific crops==

{{anchor|Almond}}

===Alfalfa===
Orloff ''et al.'', 2009 find {{slink||Glyphosate}} use in this crop is [[pesticide resistance evolution|driving resistance]] here.<ref name="volume2" />{{RP |230}}

===Almonds===
{{excerpt|Almonds in California|only=paragraphs}}

Almonds contribute a mean of 0.77 pounds <chem>N2O-N</chem> emissions per acre per year in Mediterranean agriculture systems.<ref name="Verhoeven-2017">{{Cite journal |last1=Verhoeven |first1=E. |last2=Pereira |first2=E. |last3=Decock |first3=C. |last4=Garland |first4=G. |last5=Kennedy |first5=T. |last6=Suddick |first6=E. |last7=Horwath |first7=W. |last8=Six |first8=J. |date=September 13, 2017 |title=N2O emissions from California farmlands: A review |url=http://calag.ucanr.edu/Archive/?article=ca.2017a0026 |journal=California Agriculture |language=English |volume=71 |issue=3 |pages=148–159 |doi=10.3733/ca.2017a0026 |s2cid=58942426 |issn=0008-0845|doi-access=free }}</ref>

{{anchor|Apples}}

===Apple===
The [[Fuji (apple)|Fuji]] variety is a recent import from [[Fujisaki, Aomori]], Japan.<ref name="Low-Desert-Deciduous" /><ref name="Fuji" /> Introduced in the 1980s,<ref name="Fuji">{{cite web |access-date=October 3, 2022 |date=2019 |title=Fuji |url=https://usapple.org/apple-variety/fuji-3 |website=[[USApple]]}}</ref> it quickly became the most produced apple here.<ref name="Low-Desert-Deciduous">{{cite web |access-date=June 8, 2022 |date=December 4, 2017 |first2=Michael |first1=Lucy |website=[[Arizona Extension]] |id=AZ1269 |url=https://extension.arizona.edu/pubs/deciduous-fruit-nuts-low-desert |last1=Bradley |last2=Maurer |title=Deciduous Fruit and Nuts for the Low Desert}}</ref>

{{anchor|Apricots}}

===Apricot===
For a common pest see {{section link||Cucumber Beetle}}.<ref name="ap-UC-IPM" />

{{anchor|Avocado}}
[[File:Avocado fruitnfoliage.jpg|thumb|[[Huntington Library]]]]

===Avocados===
California farms produce 90% of all U.S.-grown [[avocado]]s, with the great majority being of the [[Hass avocado|Hass variety]].<ref name="avo-quest">{{cite news |last1=Wick |first1=Julia |title=Newsletter: The quest for a more perfect California avocado |url=https://www.latimes.com/california/story/2019-07-26/california-avocado-cultivation-nafta |access-date=October 14, 2019 |work=Los Angeles Times |date=July 26, 2019}}</ref> In 2021<ref name="USDA-NASS-stats-2021">{{cite web |title=USDA/NASS 2021 State Agriculture Overview for California |website=[[USDA]] |url=http://www.nass.usda.gov/Quick_Stats/Ag_Overview/stateOverview.php?state=CALIFORNIA |access-date=June 11, 2022}}</ref> the state harvest was {{convert|135,500|ST}} on {{convert|46,700|acre}} for a [[crop yield|yield]] of {{convert|2.9|ST/acre}}, and at {{convert|2,430|$/ST|0}} that brought $327,369,000. Drought and heat can significantly reduce the harvest in some years.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Hill |first1=Naja |title=California avocado production struggles to keep up |url=https://www.keyt.com/news/california-avocado-production-struggles-to-keep-up/1033873799 |access-date=October 14, 2019 |publisher=NPG of California |date=February 21, 2019 |archive-date=October 14, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191014232119/https://www.keyt.com/news/california-avocado-production-struggles-to-keep-up/1033873799 |url-status=dead }}</ref> The Polyphagous Shothole Borer and the associated disease [[vector (epidemiology)|it carries]] have been a great concern here since their discovery on home avocado trees in [[Los Angeles County|LA County]] in 2012.<ref name="Eskalen-et-al-2013-bundle" /> Immediately [[pest eradication|eradication]] and [[phytosanitary quarantine|quarantine]] efforts were instituted, and are continuing.<ref name="Eskalen-et-al-2013-bundle" /> (See {{section link||Polyphagous shot hole borer}} below.)

For two [[invasive pest]]s which have significantly reduced grower earnings<ref name="Exotic-Biosecurity" /> see {{section link||Avocado Thrips}} and {{section link||Persea Mite}}.

===Barley===
[[Barley stripe rust]] was first found near [[Tehachapi, California|Tehachapi]] in May 1915 on ''[[Hordeum murinum]]'' by Johnson and reported by Humphrey ''et al.'', 1924.<ref name="Kang-Chen-2017">{{cite book |last1=Kang |first1=Zhensheng |last2=Chen |first2=Xianming |title=Stripe rust |publication-place=[[Dordrecht]] |date=2017 |isbn=978-94-024-1111-9 |oclc=1006649931 |pages=vii+719 |doi=10.1007/978-94-024-1111-9 |s2cid=30527470 |lccn=2017943111}} {{isbn|978-94-024-1109-6}}.</ref>{{rp|page=9}} Hungerford 1923 and Hungerford & Owens 1923 found the pathogen on cultivated [[barley]] in [[Central California|the central part of the state]] and also on ''H. murinum'' here.<ref name="Kang-Chen-2017" />{{rp|page=9}} See also {{section link||Stripe Rust}}.

{{anchor|Berry}}

===Blueberry===
The {{visible anchor|California Blueberry Commission}} represents growers.<ref name="Blue-Comm">{{cite web |access-date=August 19, 2022 |title=California Blueberries |website=[[California Blueberries]] |url=http://www.calblueberry.org/}}</ref> [[UC IPM]] provides [[integrated pest management]] plans<ref name="blue-UC-IPM">{{cite web |access-date=August 19, 2022 |publisher=UC Agriculture |website=[[University of California Integrated Pest Management|UC Integrated Pest Management]] |url=https://www2.ipm.ucanr.edu/agriculture/blueberry/ |title=Blueberry}}</ref> for blueberry (''[[Vaccinium]]'' spp.).

===Broccoli===
[[File:Broccoli crop.jpg|thumb|Pesticide [[test plot]], [[Salinas, California|Salinas]]]]
[[File:USDA Irrigation 2011.jpg|thumb|Broccoli field, [[Salinas Valley|Salinas]]]]
Almost all of the country's [[broccoli]] is grown here.<ref name="2021-country-prod-stats-veg" /> {{As of|2021|alt=In 2021}} that was {{convert|11,200|acre||adj=pre| planted}}, all of which was harvested.<ref name="2021-country-prod-stats-veg" /> The yield was {{convert|130.0|scwt/acre|kg/ha lb/acre}} for a harvest of {{convert|1,512,000|scwt|MT ST}}.<ref name="2021-country-prod-stats-veg" /> There was only trace wastage.<ref name="2021-country-prod-stats-veg" /> Selling at a price of {{convert|51.50|$/scwt|$/lb $/kg}}, the year sold for $631,455,000.<ref name="2021-country-prod-stats-veg">{{cite web |access-date=July 12, 2022 |date=February 16, 2022 |url=https://usda.library.cornell.edu/concern/publications/02870v86p |website=USDA [[National Agricultural Statistics Service]] |title=Vegetables Annual Summary - ID: 02870v86p - USDA Economics, Statistics and Market Information System |issn=0884-6413}}</ref>

For an invasive pest of this crop see the painted bug ''{{section link||Bagrada hilaris}}''.<ref name="Palumbo-et-al-2016" />

The typical [[biomass]] of [[harvest residue]] in [[Coastal California|the coastal regions]] is {{convert|5|ST/ha||adj=pre| dry}}.<ref name="Worms-Without-MB">
*{{cite journal |date=2010 |volume=48 |publisher=[[Annual Reviews (publisher)|Annual Reviews]] |first3=Nancy |first2=John M. |pages=311–328 |first1=Inga A. |last1=Zasada |last2=Halbrendt |last3=Kokalis-Burelle |first4=James |last4=LaMondia |first5=Michael V. |last5=McKenry |first6=Joe W. |last6=Noling |journal=[[Annual Review of Phytopathology]] |title=Managing Nematodes Without Methyl Bromide |doi=10.1146/annurev-phyto-073009-114425 |pmid=20455696 |s2cid=20955001}}
*{{cite journal |issue=1 |volume=4 |year=2003 |first2=H. |last1=Zasada |first1=I. A. |last2=Ferris |last3=Elmore |first3=C. L. |last4=Roncoroni |first4=J. A. |last5=MacDonald |first5=J. D. |last6=Bolkan |first6=L. R. |last7=Yakabe |first7=L. E. |title=Field Application of Brassicaceous Amendments for Control of Soilborne Pests and Pathogens |journal=[[Plant Health Progress]] |publisher=[[American Phytopathological Society]] |issn=1535-1025 |doi=10.1094/php-2003-1120-01-rs|doi-access=free }}
</ref> This is not necessarily a waste product, as it can be useful as fumigant.<ref name="Worms-Without-MB" />

{{anchor|Caneberries}}

===Caneberry===
[[File:Rubus ursinus ssp. macropetalus.jpg|thumb|[[California Blackberry]]]]
Caneberries (''[[Rubus]]'' spp.) grown here include raspberry (see {{section link||Raspberry}}), {{visible anchor|Blackberry|text=[[blackberry]]}}, {{visible anchor|Dewberry|text=[[dewberry]]}}, {{visible anchor|Olallieberry|text=[[olallieberry]]}}, and {{visible anchor|Boysenberry|text=[[boysenberry]]}}.<ref name="cane-spot-UC-IPM" />

For a common disease of erect and trailing caneberry (excluding raspberry), see {{section link||Leaf Spot of Caneberry}}.

===Cannabis===
[[File:Emerald Triangle.png|thumb|[[Emerald Triangle]]]]
{{Excerpt|Cannabis in California|Cultivation}}

{{anchor|Cherry}}

===Cherries===
[[File:Cherry Trees, Cherry Valley 3-23-13 (8594875223).jpg|thumb|[[Cherry Valley, California|Cherry Valley]]]]
The {{visible anchor|California Cherry Board}}<ref name="Cherry-Board">{{cite web |title=California Cherries |website=[[California Cherry Board]] |date=April 18, 2022 |url=http://calcherry.com |access-date=June 14, 2022}}</ref> is a state [[marketing order]] representing growers and intermediaries here.<ref name="Cherry-Board-about">{{cite web |title=About California Cherries |website=[[California Cherry Board]] |date=April 18, 2022 |url=http://calcherry.com/about/ |access-date=June 14, 2022}}</ref> The USDA FAS's [[Market Access Program]] funds international advertising especially in Canada, South Korea, Japan, China, and Australia.<ref name="Cherry-Board-about" /> The state produces the earliest crop in the year<ref name="Cherry-Board-about" /> starting in mid-April.<ref name="Cherry-Board-facts">{{cite web |title=Cherry Facts |website=[[California Cherry Board]] |date=April 18, 2022 |url=http://calcherry.com/facts/ |access-date=June 14, 2022}}</ref> Lasting until early or mid-June every year, this is the second heaviest harvest after [[Washington (state)|Washington]].<ref name="Cherry-Board-facts" />

[[Planting density]] is usually about {{convert|100|/acre||adj=pre| trees}} and the first real crop will be about six years later.<ref name="Cherry-Board-facts" /> [[Honey bee]]s are essential to [[pollination]] for this crop.<ref name="Cherry-Board-facts" /> [[Cherry cultivar|Cultivars grown here]]<ref name="Cherry-Board-cultivars">{{cite web |title=Varieties |website=[[California Cherry Board]] |date=April 18, 2022 |url=http://calcherry.com/varieties/ |access-date=June 14, 2022}}</ref> are [[harvest]]ed by hand with the stem ([[Pedicel (botany)|pedicel]]).<ref name="Cherry-Board-facts" />

[[Central California|The center of the state]] produces almost all the entire crop<ref name="Cherry-Board-locations">{{cite web |title=Our Growers |website=[[California Cherry Board]] |date=April 18, 2022 |url=http://calcherry.com/varieties/ |access-date=June 14, 2022}}</ref> and [[San Joaquin County]], near [[Lodi, California|Lodi]] is the highest producing county.<ref name="Cherry-Board-facts" /> Many of these are [[Bing cherry|Bing]].<ref name="Cherry-Board-facts" /> {{As of|2022}} newer Bing strains with better heat tolerance have recently been planted here as well as counties further south.<ref name="Cherry-Board-facts" />

Birds are common [[orchard pest|pests in cherry orchards]].<ref name="cherry-birds-UC-IPM" /><ref name="fruit-vine-UC-IPM" />

===Citrus===

The [[Mediterranean climate]] affords a lower rate of [[Post-harvest losses (fruit)|post-harvest disease]] than in some of the world's [[growing region]]s, similar to the Mediterranean itself, Australia, and most of South Africa.<ref name="Palou-Smilanick-2020">{{cite book |editor1-first=Lluís |editor1-last=Palou |editor2-first=Joseph L. |editor2-last=Smilanick |title=Postharvest Pathology of Fresh Horticultural Produce |publisher=[[CRC Press]] |publication-place=[[Boca Raton, FL]] USA |year=2020 |isbn=978-1-315-20918-0 |oclc=1104856309 |page=xviii+823 |lccn=2019023295}} {{isbn|9781351805889}}. {{isbn|9781351805896}}. {{isbn|9781138630833}}. {{LCCN|2019023296}}.</ref>{{rp|page=6}} Postharvest problems that do occur tend to be mostly blue and green ''[[Penicillium]]'' spp.<ref name="Palou-Smilanick-2020" />{{rp|page=6}} The Asian citrus psyllid was discovered in [[Southern California]] in 2008 and [[pest eradication|eradication]] and [[phytosanitary quarantine|quarantine]] are now underway.<ref name="ACP-UCR-CISR">{{cite web |title=Asian Citrus Psyllid |website=Center for Invasive Species Research |publisher=[[University of California Riverside]] |date=January 23, 2020 |url=http://cisr.ucr.edu/invasive-species/asian-citrus-psyllid |access-date=May 22, 2022}}</ref><ref name="ACP-WSJ">{{cite web |last=Jordan |first=Miriam |title=Citrus Disease Stirs Anxiety in California |website=[[Wall Street Journal]] |date=April 15, 2012 |url=http://online.wsj.com/article/SB10001424052702304818404577346014009203758.html |access-date=May 22, 2022}}</ref> (See {{section link||Asian citrus psyllid}} below.) DDT was formerly extensively used in this crop.<ref name="Atkins-Anderson-1962-bundle">
*{{cite journal |last1=Atkins |first1=E. L. |last2=Anderson |first2=L. D. |title=DDT Resistance in Honey Bees |journal=[[Journal of Economic Entomology]] |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |volume=55 |issue=5 |date=October 1, 1962 |issn=1938-291X |doi=10.1093/jee/55.5.791 |pages=791–792}}
*{{cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Reed M. |title=Honey Bee Toxicology |journal=[[Annual Review of Entomology]] |publisher=[[Annual Reviews (publisher)|Annual Reviews]] |volume=60 |issue=1 |date=January 7, 2015 |issn=0066-4170 |doi=10.1146/annurev-ento-011613-162005 |pages=415–434 |pmid=25341092|doi-access=free }}
</ref>

===Cotton===
''[[Gossypium]]'' spp. are extensively grown in the [[Imperial Valley]].<ref name="geneflow" />

{{Slink||Pink Bollworm}} spread to California from its original introduction in Texas.<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1093/jee/toz173 |title=Global Patterns of Resistance to Bt Crops Highlighting Pink Bollworm in the United States, China, and India |year=2019 |last1=Tabashnik |first1=Bruce E. |last2=Carrière |first2=Yves |journal=[[Journal of Economic Entomology]] |volume=112 |issue=6 |pages=2513–2523 |pmid=31254345}}</ref> Despite wide [[established species|establishment]] elsewhere in the southwest the [[San Joaquin Valley]] did not suffer permanent establishment.<ref name="Management2013" /> SJV was protected by its [[sterile insect technique]] (SIT) program although neighbouring areas were continuously infested.<ref name="Management2013" >{{Cite book |publisher=[[Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg]] |last1=Hardee |first1=D. D. |last2=Henneberry |first2=T. J. |date=2004 |editor-first1=A. Rami |editor-first2=Isaac |editor-last1=Horowitz |editor-last2=Ishaaya |pages=119–140 [126–127] |doi=10.1007/978-3-662-07913-3_6 |title=Insect Pest Management |chapter=Area-Wide Management of Insects Infesting Cotton |isbn=978-3-642-05859-2 |s2cid=32129718}}</ref> UC IPM provides management information.<ref name="hzcb" >{{cite web |access-date=2023-06-12 |year=2015 |title=Guidelines |publisher=[[University of California Agriculture and Natural Resources]] |website=[[Statewide IPM Program]], Agriculture and Natural Resources, University of California Regents of the University of California |url=https://ipm.ucanr.edu/agriculture/cotton/cotton-bollworm/}}</ref>

California was an early adopter of [[Bt cotton|''Bt'' cotton]], but at a low proportion of [[acre]]age.<ref name="lowadoption">{{cite journal |year=2002 |issue=1 |volume=47 |publisher=[[Annual Reviews (publisher)|Annual Reviews]] |first3=R. T. |first2=J.-Z. |first1=A. M. |last3=Roush |last2=Zhao |journal=[[Annual Review of Entomology]] |issn=0066-4170 |last1=Shelton |pages=845–881 |doi=10.1146/annurev.ento.47.091201.145309 |title=Economic, Ecological, Food Safety, and Social Consequences of the Deployment of Bt Transgenic Plants |pmid=11729093}}</ref> The SJV does not use it at all.<ref name="Integration" >{{Cite book |year=2008 |title=Integration of Insect-Resistant Genetically Modified Crops within IPM Programs |publisher=[[Springer Netherlands]] |publication-place=[[Dordrecht]] |doi=10.1007/978-1-4020-8373-0 |page=168 |isbn=978-1-4020-8372-3 |editor-last1=Romeis |editor-last2=Shelton |editor-last3=Kennedy |editor-first1=Jörg |editor-first2=Anthony M. |editor-first3=George G.}}</ref> However [[Bt resistance]] has been slow to develop here and in [[Arizona]] and in [[Texas]].<ref name="Remains-Rare" >
*{{cite journal |year=2013 |issue=6 |volume=31 |publisher=[[Nature Portfolio]] |journal=[[Nature Biotechnology]] |issn=1087-0156 |last1=Tabashnik |first1=Bruce E. |last2=Brévault |first2=Thierry |last3=Carrière |first3=Yves |title=Insect resistance to Bt crops: lessons from the first billion acres |pages=510–521 |doi=10.1038/nbt.2597 |s2cid=205278530 |pmid=23752438 |author1-link=Bruce Tabashnik}}
*{{cite journal |year=2008 |issue=2 |first3=David |volume=26 |first2=Aaron |publisher=[[Nature Portfolio]] |issn=1087-0156 |journal=[[Nature Biotechnology]] |first4=Yves |first1=Bruce |last2=Gassmann |last3=Crowder |last4=Carriere |pages=199–202 |last1=Tabashnik |author1-link=Bruce Tabashnik |pmid=18259177 |s2cid=205273664 |doi=10.1038/nbt1382 |title=Insect resistance to Bt crops: evidence versus theory}}
These reviews cite this research.
*{{cite journal |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |last1=Tabashnik |first1=Bruce |author-link1=Bruce Tabashnik |last2=Fabrick |first2=Jeffrey |last3=Henderson |first3=Scottie |last4=Biggs |first4=Robert |last5=Yafuso |first5=Christine |last6=Nyboer |first6=Megan |last7=Manhardt |first7=Nancy |last8=Coughlin |first8=Laura |last9=Sollome |first9=James |last10=Carrière |first10=Yves |last11=Dennehy |first11=Timothy |last12=Morin |first12=Shai |title=DNA Screening Reveals Pink Bollworm Resistance to Bt Cotton Remains Rare After a Decade of Exposure |journal=[[Journal of Economic Entomology]] |volume=99 |issue=5 |date=2006-10-01 |issn=1938-291X |doi=10.1093/jee/99.5.1525 |pages=1525–1530 |pmid=17066779}}
</ref> In the California/Arizona population Tabashnik ''et al.'', 2022 find [[Cry1Ac resistance]] and [[Cry2Ab resistance]] are common but the causative mutations do not cause [[Vip3Aa resistance]].<ref name="Responses" >
*{{cite journal |issue=2 |date=2023 |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |volume=116 |last1=Tabashnik |first1=Bruce E. |last2=Fabrick |first2=Jeffrey A. |last3=Carrière |first3=Yves |title=Global Patterns of Insect Resistance to Transgenic Bt Crops: The First 25 Years |journal=[[Journal of Economic Entomology]] |issn=0022-0493 |doi=10.1093/jee/toac183 |pages=297–309 |pmid=36610076 |author-link1=Bruce Tabashnik|doi-access=free }}
*{{cite journal |issue=2 |date=2023 |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |volume=116 |pages=648 |title=Correction to: Global Patterns of Insect Resistance to Transgenic Bt Crops: The First 25 Years |journal=[[Journal of Economic Entomology]] |issn=0022-0493 |doi=10.1093/jee/toad013 |pmid=36661297|doi-access=free }}
These review cites this research.
*{{cite journal |issue=10 |publisher=[[John Wiley & Sons, Inc.]] |year=2022 |volume=78 |first6=Yves |first5=Timothy |first4=Jeffrey |first3=Alexander |first2=Gopalan |first1=Bruce |last6=Carriere |last5=Dennehy |last4=Fabrick |last3=Yelich |last2=Unnithan |last1=Tabashnik |pages=3973–3979 |title=Responses to Bt toxin Vip3Aa by pink bollworm larvae resistant or susceptible to Cry toxins |journal=[[Pest Management Science]] |issn=1526-498X |eissn=1526-4998 |doi=10.1002/ps.7016 |pmid=35633103 |s2cid=249127792 |author-link1=Bruce Tabashnik}}</ref>

''{{Slink||Bemisia tabaci strain B}}'' is common in the [[Imperial Valley]].<ref name="Production" /> The use of [[pyrethroid]]s in the 1980s failed to control it and in deed caused a population increase.<ref name="Production" >{{Cite book |date=2020 |publication-place=[[Hoboken, NJ]] |publisher=[[John Wiley & Sons Ltd.]] |page=86 |editor-first1=Khawar |editor-first2=Bhagirath Singh |editor-last1=Jabran |editor-last2=Chauhan |title=Cotton Production |doi=10.1002/9781119385523 |isbn=9781119385493 |s2cid=133394368 |oclc=1111436063}}</ref>

The southwest water shortage is reducing yield and acreage in the 2020s.<ref name="pmcgp" >
 {{Cite book |date=2022 |last1=Matthews |first1=G. |last2=Miller |first2=Thomas |publisher=[[Centre for Agriculture and Bioscience International|CABI]] |title=Pest Management in Cotton: A Global Perspective |publication-place=[[Oxfordshire, UK]] |isbn=978-1-80062-021-6 |oclc=1255523828 |page=270}}
</ref>

[[Interferometric synthetic aperture radar]] (InSAR) surveys show this crop is a significant cause of [[groundwater-related subsidence]].<ref name="Shifting" >{{Cite journal |date=2021 |publisher=[[American Association for the Advancement of Science]] |journal=[[Science (journal)|Science]] |issn=0036-8075 |last=Rosen |first=Julia |volume=371 |issue=6532 |url=https://www.science.org/doi/full/10.1126/science.371.6532.876 |pages=876–880 |title=Shifting ground |doi=10.1126/science.371.6532.876 |pmid=33632830 |bibcode=2021Sci...371..876R|s2cid=232058145 }}</ref>

{{Slink||1,3-dichloropropene}} and {{Slink||Chloropicrin}} are effective against the complex of ''{{Slink||Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. vasinfectum}}'' and {{Slink||Nematode}}.<ref name="volume2" >{{Cite book |year=2019 |publisher=[[Springer Singapore]] |publication-place=[[Singapore]] |page=391 |isbn=978-981-329-782-1 |url=https://link.springer.com/book/10.1007/978-981-32-9783-8 |title=Agronomic Crops |journal=<!-- --> |doi=10.1007/978-981-32-9783-8 |s2cid=208225230 |editor-last1=Hasanuzzaman |editor-first1=Mirza}}</ref>

Ortiz ''et al.'', 2017 provides a [[polymerase chain reaction]] (PCR) method which differentiates the California race 4 strain from all others based on the {{Visible anchor | PHO}} gene.<ref name="fovtf01" >
*{{cite journal |date=2019 |issue=1 |pages=1–47 |first2=M. |volume=43 |first4=P. W. |last1=Lombard |last2=Sandoval-Denis |first1=L. |last3=Lamprecht |last4=Crous |first3=S. C. |title=Epitypification of ''Fusarium oxysporum'' – clearing the taxonomic chaos |journal=[[Persoonia]] |publisher=[[National Herbarium of the Netherlands]] + [[Centraalbureau voor Schimmelcultures]] |issn=0031-5850 |doi=10.3767/persoonia.2019.43.01 |s2cid=91706858 |pmid=32214496 |pmc=7085860}}
This review cites this research.
*{{cite journal |issue=1 |year=2017 |volume=101 |last1=Ortiz |first1=Carlos |last2=Bell |first2=Alois |last3=Magill |first3=Clint |last4=Liu |first4=Jinggao |pages=34–44 |title=Specific PCR Detection of ''Fusarium oxysporum'' f. sp. ''vasinfectum'' California Race 4 Based on a Unique ''Tfo1'' Insertion Event in the ''PHO'' Gene |publisher=[[American Phytopathological Society]] |journal=[[Plant Disease (journal)|Plant Disease]] |issn=0191-2917 |s2cid=59273998 |pmid=30682321 |doi=10.1094/pdis-03-16-0332-re|doi-access=free }}</ref> [[University of California Integrated Pest Management]] (UC IPM) provides practices for its control<ref name="fov-UC-IPM" >{{Cite web |access-date=2022-05-05 |website=[[University of California Integrated Pest Management]] |title=UC IPM: UC Management Guidelines for Fusarium Wilt on Cotton |url=https://ipm.ucanr.edu/PMG/r114100311.html}}</ref> including [[Glenn County, California|Glenn County]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Fungus research helps sustain San Joaquin Valley Pima cotton industry |url=http://cetehama.ucanr.edu/?impact=725&a=0 |access-date=2023-07-06 |website=University of California Tehama County |language=en-US}}</ref>

Some ''[[Pythium]]'' spp. are [[seedborne disease]]s in cotton.<ref name="pythcott" /><ref name="Quaternary-Ammonium" >{{Cite journal |year=2023 |last1=Copes |first1=Warren |last2=Ojiambo |first2=Peter |title=A Systematic Review and Quantitative Synthesis of the Efficacy of Quaternary Ammonium Compounds in Disinfesting Non-fungal Plant Pathogens |publisher=[[American Phytopathological Society]] |journal=[[Plant Disease (journal)|Plant Disease]] |volume=107 |issue=10 |pages=3176–3187 |issn=0191-2917 |eissn=1943-7692 |doi=10.1094/pdis-12-21-2751-re |pmid=36890133 |s2cid=257426099}}</ref> UC IPM provide management information.<ref name="pythcott" >{{Cite web |access-date=2022-05-06 |website=[[University of California Integrated Pest Management]] |title=UC IPM: UC Management Guidelines |url=https://ipm.ucanr.edu/PMG/r114100111.html}}</ref>

Several ''Tetranychus'' spider mite species are common on cotton here  including the Pacific Spider Mite (''[[Tetranychus pacificus]]''), the Two-Spotted Spider Mite (''[[Tetranychus urticae|T. urticae]]'')<ref name="Resist91" />{{rp | page=18}} and ''[[Tetranychus cinnabarinus|T. cinnabarinus]]''.<ref name="tcwsm" >{{cite web |access-date=2023-06-22 |year=2015 |title=Guidelines |publisher=[[University of California Agriculture and Natural Resources]] |website=[[Statewide IPM Program]], Agriculture and Natural Resources, University of California Regents of the University of California |url=https://ipm.ucanr.edu/agriculture/cotton/field-crickets/}}</ref>

[[Extirpation|Eradication]] of the {{Slink||Pink Bollworm}} in this and neighbouring states was greatly aided by the deployment of [[Bt cotton|''Bt'' cotton]].<ref name="Synergize" >
*{{cite journal |issue=2 |publisher=[[Springer Science and Business Media LLC]] |year=2021 |volume=29 |last1=Hafeez |first1=Muhammad |last2=Ullah |first2=Farman |last3=Khan |first3=Musa |last4=Li |first4=Xiaowei |last5=Zhang |first5=Zhijun |last6=Shah |first6=Sakhawat |last7=Imran |first7=Muhammad |last8=Assiri |first8=Mohammed |last9=Fernandez |first9=G. |last10=Desneux |first10=Nicolas |last11=Rehman |first11=Muzammal |last12=Fahad |first12=Shah |last13=Lu |first13=Yaobin |journal=[[Environmental Science and Pollution Research]] |s2cid=240006285 |pmid=34709552 |doi=10.1007/s11356-021-16974-w |title=Metabolic-based insecticide resistance mechanism and ecofriendly approaches for controlling of beet armyworm ''Spodoptera exigua'': a review |issn=0944-1344 |pages=1746–1762}}
*{{cite journal |issue=2 |date=2023 |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |volume=116 |last1=Tabashnik |first1=Bruce E. |last2=Fabrick |first2=Jeffrey A. |last3=Carrière |first3=Yves |title=Global Patterns of Insect Resistance to Transgenic Bt Crops: The First 25 Years |journal=[[Journal of Economic Entomology]] |issn=0022-0493 |doi=10.1093/jee/toac183 |pages=297–309 |pmid=36610076 |author-link1=Bruce Tabashnik|doi-access=free }}
*{{cite journal |issue=2 |date=2023 |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |volume=116 |pages=648 |title=Correction to: Global Patterns of Insect Resistance to Transgenic Bt Crops: The First 25 Years |journal=[[Journal of Economic Entomology]] |issn=0022-0493 |doi=10.1093/jee/toad013 |pmid=36661297|doi-access=free }}
These reviews cite this research.
*{{cite journal |issue=1 |year=2020 |volume=118 |journal=[[Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences]] |publisher=[[National Academy of Sciences of the United States]] |issn=0027-8424 |last1=Tabashnik |first1=Bruce |author-link1=Bruce Tabashnik |last2=Liesner |first2=Leighton |last3=Ellsworth |first3=Peter |last4=Unnithan |first4=Gopalan |last5=Fabrick |first5=Jeffrey |last6=Naranjo |first6=Steven |last7=Li |first7=Xianchun |last8=Dennehy |first8=Timothy |last9=Antilla |first9=Larry |last10=Staten |first10=Robert |last11=Carriere |first11=Yves |title=Transgenic cotton and sterile insect releases synergize eradication of pink bollworm a century after it invaded the United States |doi=10.1073/pnas.2019115118 |s2cid=230713895 |pmid=33443170 |pmc=7817146 |doi-access=free}}
</ref> The eradication program began elsewhere and was extended to the California Cotton Belt in 2007.<ref name="Suppressing" >
*{{cite journal |issue=3 |publisher=[[Springer Science + Business Media]] |year=2021 |pages=1–35 |volume=41 |last1=Deguine |first1=Philippe |last2=Aubertot |first2=Noel |last3=Flor |first3=Rica Joy |last4=Lescourret |first4=Francoise |last5=Wyckhuys |first5=Kris |last6=Ratnadass |first6=Alain |journal=[[Agronomy for Sustainable Development]] |issn=1774-0746 |doi=10.1007/s13593-021-00689-w |title=Integrated pest management: good intentions, hard realities. A review |s2cid=236349751|doi-access=free |bibcode=2021AgSD...41...38D }}
This review cites this research.
*{{cite journal |issue=12 |year=2010 |volume=28 |publisher=[[Nature Portfolio]] |last1=Tabashnik |first1=Bruce |last2=Sisterson |first2=Mark |last3=Ellsworth |first3=Peter |last4=Dennehy |first4=Timothy |last5=Antilla |first5=Larry |last6=Liesner |first6=Leighton |last7=Whitlow |first7=Mike |last8=Staten |first8=Robert |last9=Fabrick |first9=Jeffrey |last10=Unnithan |first10=Gopalan |last11=Yelich |first11=Alex |last12=Kirk |first12=Christa |last13=Harpold |first13=Virginia |last14=Li |first14=Xianchun |last15=Carriere |first15=Yves |journal=[[Nature Biotechnology]] |issn=1087-0156 |title=Suppressing resistance to Bt cotton with sterile insect releases |doi=10.1038/nbt.1704 |pages=1304–1307 |pmid=21057498 |s2cid=4988462}}
</ref> Dennehy ''et al.'', 2011 find bollworm remained 100% susceptible to ''[[Cry1Ac]]'' and ''[[Cry2Ab2]]'' through 2005 here and in Arizona.<ref name="Sustained" >
*{{cite journal |last1=Tabashnik |first1=Bruce |last2=Morin |first2=Shai |last3=Unnithan |first3=Gopalan |last4=Yelich |first4=Alex |last5=Kirk |first5=Christa |last6=Harpold |first6=Virginia |last7=Sisterson |first7=Mark |last8=Ellsworth |first8=Peter |last9=Dennehy |first9=Timothy |last10=Antilla |first10=Larry |last11=Liesner |first11=Leighton |last12=Whitlow |first12=Mike |last13=Staten |first13=Robert |last14=Fabrick |first14=Jeffrey |last15=Li |first15=Xianchun |last16=Carriere |first16=Yves |title=Sustained susceptibility of pink bollworm to Bt cotton in the United States |journal=[[GM Crops & Food]] |publisher=[[Landes Bioscience]] |volume=3 |issue=3 |year=2012 |issn=2164-5698 |s2cid=20288529 |pmid=22572905 |pages=194–200 |doi=10.4161/gmcr.20329 |author-link1=Bruce Tabashnik|doi-access=free }}
This review cites this research.
*{{cite journal |access-date=2023-05-21 |year=2011 |last1=Dennehy |first1=Timothy |last2=Unnithan |first2=Gopalan |last3=Harpold |first3=Virginia |last4=Carriere |first4=Yves |last5=Tabashnik |first5=Bruce |last6=Antilla |first6=Larry |last7=Whitlow |first7=Mike |url=https://repository.arizona.edu/handle/10150/198218 |location=[[Tucson, AZ]] |publisher=[[University of Arizona]] |journal=[[Arizona Cotton Report]] |title=Susceptibility of Southwestern Pink Bollworm to ''Bt'' toxins Cry1Ac and Cry2Ab2 in 2005 |author-link5=Bruce Tabashnik}}
</ref>

[[Pyrethrin]]s are commonly used in this crop.<ref name="UCANREB2017" >{{Cite journal |access-date=2023-05-20 |publisher=[[Agriculture and Natural Resources, University of California]] |journal=[[UCANR eJournal of Entomology and Biologicals]] |url=https://ucanr.edu/blogs/blogcore/postdetail.cfm?postnum=25819 |year=2017 |title=Insect resistance to biopesticides}}</ref>

Deynze ''et al.'', 2005 performs the first [[gene flow]] analysis in California cotton.<ref name="Flow" /> Deynze finds [[pollinator]]s are responsible for almost 100%.<ref name="Flow" >
*{{cite journal |issue=1 |year=2008 |publisher=[[Taylor & Francis]] |volume=27 |last1=Chandler |first1=Stephen |last2=Dunwell |first2=Jim |pages=25–49 |title=Gene Flow, Risk Assessment and the Environmental Release of Transgenic Plants |journal=[[Critical Reviews in Plant Sciences]] |issn=0735-2689 |doi=10.1080/07352680802053916 |bibcode=2008CRvPS..27...25C |s2cid=84936182}}
This review cites this research.
*{{cite journal |year=2005 |issue=4 |publisher=[[John Wiley & Sons, Inc.]] |volume=45 |last1=Deynze |first1=Allen |last2=Sundstrom |first2=Frederick |last3=Bradford |first3=Kent |pages=1565–1570 |journal=[[Crop Science]] |issn=0011-183X |eissn=1435-0653 |doi=10.2135/cropsci2004.0463 |title=Pollen-Mediated Gene Flow in California Cotton Depends on Pollinator Activity}}
</ref><ref name="Modeling" >
*{{cite journal |issue=4 |publisher=[[Cell Press]] |year=2016 |volume=34 |last1=Carriere |first1=Yves |last2=Fabrick |first2=Jeffrey |last3=Tabashnik |first3=Bruce |pages=291–302 |journal=[[Trends in Biotechnology]] |issn=0167-7799 |doi=10.1016/j.tibtech.2015.12.011 |title=Can Pyramids and Seed Mixtures Delay Resistance to Bt Crops? |pmid=26774592 |author-link3=Bruce Tabashnik|doi-access=free }}
This review cites this review.
*{{cite journal |issue=2 |year=2011 |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |volume=40 |pages=484–495 |last1=Heuberger |first1=Shannon |last2=Crowder |first2=David |last3=Brevault |first3=Thierry |last4=Tabashnik |first4=Bruce |last5=Carriere |first5=Yves |doi=10.1603/en10247 |title=Modeling the Effects of Plant-to-Plant Gene Flow, Larval Behavior, and Refuge Size on Pest Resistance to Bt Cotton |journal=[[Environmental Entomology]] |s2cid=84981187 |issn=0046-225X |author-link4=Bruce Tabashnik|doi-access=free }}
</ref>

[[Lacewing]]s<ref name="Advances" >{{Cite book |year=2016 |page=321 |publication-place=[[Cham, Switzerland]] |publisher=[[Springer International Publishing]] |title=Advances in Insect Control and Resistance Management |doi=10.1007/978-3-319-31800-4 |isbn=978-3-319-31798-4 |s2cid=11950049 |editor-last1=Horowitz |editor-last2=Ishaaya |editor-first1=A. Rami |editor-first2=Isaac}}</ref> and whiteflies (''{{Slink||Bemisia tabaci strain B}}'')<ref name="Juvenile">{{cite book |year=2013 |publisher=[[CRC Press]] |last=Devillers |first=James |page=118 |title=Juvenile Hormones and Juvenoids |isbn=978-1-4665-1322-8}}</ref> are common pests of this crop.

''[[Gossypium barbadense|G. barbadense]]'' is grown in a small part of the country including the southern part of this state.<ref name="VW" >{{cite journal |issue=4 |year=2014 |volume=54 |publisher=[[John Wiley & Sons, Inc.]] |last1=Zhang |first1=Jinfa |last2=Fang |first2=Hui |last3=Zhou |first3=Huiping |last4=Sanogo |first4=Soum |last5=Ma |first5=Zhiying |pages=1289–1303 |journal=[[Crop Science]] |issn=0011-183X |title=Genetics, Breeding, and Marker-Assisted Selection for Verticillium Wilt Resistance in Cotton |s2cid=84700361 |doi=10.2135/cropsci2013.08.0550}}</ref>

''[[Delia platura]]'' is a common [[seed predator]] of this crop.<ref name="smdp">{{cite web |access-date=2023-06-04 |year=2015 |title=Guidelines |publisher=[[University of California Agriculture and Natural Resources]] |website=[[Statewide IPM Program]], Agriculture and Natural Resources, University of California Regents of the University of California |url=https://ipm.ucanr.edu/agriculture/cotton/seedcorn-maggot/}}</ref>

''[[Limonius]]'' spp. are pests of [[germination]] and [[seedling]] stage.<ref name="lww">{{cite web |access-date=2023-06-05 |year=2015 |title=Guidelines |publisher=[[University of California Agriculture and Natural Resources]] |website=[[Statewide IPM Program]], Agriculture and Natural Resources, University of California Regents of the University of California |url=https://ipm.ucanr.edu/agriculture/cotton/wireworms/}}</ref>

''{{Slink||Frankliniella occidentalis}}'' is rarely a pest.<ref name="fowft" /> ''F. occidentalis'' are mostly a [[bioinsecticide]] of [[mite]]s.<ref name="fowft" >{{cite web |access-date=2023-06-06 |year=2015 |title=Guidelines |publisher=[[University of California Agriculture and Natural Resources]] |website=[[Statewide IPM Program]], Agriculture and Natural Resources, University of California Regents of the University of California |url=https://ipm.ucanr.edu/agriculture/cotton/thrips/}}</ref>

''{{Slink||Lygus hesperus}}'' is often confused for other species including some [[beneficial insect]]s.<ref name="lhwtpb" >{{cite web |access-date=2023-06-07 |year=2015 |title=Guidelines |publisher=[[University of California Agriculture and Natural Resources]] |website=[[Statewide IPM Program]], Agriculture and Natural Resources, University of California Regents of the University of California |url=https://ipm.ucanr.edu/agriculture/cotton/lygus-bug-western-tarnished-plant-bug/}}</ref>

''[[Spodoptera praefica]]'' is a late season pest and rarely an early season pest.<ref name="spwya" >{{cite web |access-date=2023-06-08 |year=2015 |title=Guidelines |publisher=[[University of California Agriculture and Natural Resources]] |website=[[Statewide IPM Program]], Agriculture and Natural Resources, University of California Regents of the University of California |url=https://ipm.ucanr.edu/agriculture/cotton/western-yellowstriped-armyworm/}}</ref>

''{{Slink||Blapstinus}}'' spp. affect seedlings.<ref name="dbb" >{{cite web |access-date=2023-06-09 |year=2015 |title=Guidelines |publisher=[[University of California Agriculture and Natural Resources]] |website=[[Statewide IPM Program]], Agriculture and Natural Resources, University of California Regents of the University of California |url=https://ipm.ucanr.edu/agriculture/cotton/darkling-beetles/}}</ref>

''[[Empoasca fabae]]'' is the most common leafhopper in the [[San Joaquin Valley]].<ref name="lh" >{{cite web |access-date=2023-06-10 |year=2015 |title=Guidelines |publisher=[[University of California Agriculture and Natural Resources]] |website=[[Statewide IPM Program]], Agriculture and Natural Resources, University of California Regents of the University of California |url=https://ipm.ucanr.edu/agriculture/cotton/leafhoppers/}}</ref>

''[[Euschistus servus]]'' damages [[Cotton|boll]]s.<ref name="essb" >{{cite web |access-date=2023-06-11 |year=2015 |title=Guidelines |publisher=[[University of California Agriculture and Natural Resources]] |website=[[Statewide IPM Program]], Agriculture and Natural Resources, University of California Regents of the University of California |url=https://ipm.ucanr.edu/agriculture/cotton/stink-bugs/}}</ref>

''{{Slink||Spodoptera exigua}}'' is a pest of [[seedling]]s, young plants, squares and early bolls.<ref name="base" >{{cite web |access-date=2023-06-13 |year=2015 |title=Guidelines |publisher=[[University of California Agriculture and Natural Resources]] |website=[[Statewide IPM Program]], Agriculture and Natural Resources, University of California Regents of the University of California |url=https://ipm.ucanr.edu/agriculture/cotton/beet-armyworm/}}</ref>

''[[Caliothrips fasciatus]]'' is a pest of the mature plant.<ref>{{cite web |access-date=2023-06-14 |year=2015 |title=Guidelines |publisher=[[University of California Agriculture and Natural Resources]] |website=[[Statewide IPM Program]], Agriculture and Natural Resources, University of California Regents of the University of California |url=https://ipm.ucanr.edu/agriculture/cotton/thrips/}}</ref>

The [[larva]]e of ''{{Slink||Heliothis virescens}}'' are pests of bolls and squares.<ref>{{cite web |access-date=2023-06-19 |year=2015 |title=Guidelines |publisher=[[University of California Agriculture and Natural Resources]] |website=[[Statewide IPM Program]], Agriculture and Natural Resources, University of California Regents of the University of California |url=https://ipm.ucanr.edu/agriculture/cotton/tobacco-budworm/}}</ref>

''[[Gryllus]]'' spp. are pests of the early stages.<ref name="tcwsm" />

''[[Bucculatrix thurberiella]]''{{'}}s harm is limited to the southern deserts only.<ref name="btclp">{{cite web |access-date=2023-06-24 |year=2015 |title=Guidelines |publisher=[[University of California Agriculture and Natural Resources]] |website=[[Statewide IPM Program]], Agriculture and Natural Resources, University of California Regents of the University of California |url=https://ipm.ucanr.edu/agriculture/cotton/cotton-leaf-perforator/}}</ref>

''[[Autographa californica]]'' is found mostly in May and early June here.<ref name="alac">{{cite web |access-date=2023-06-25 |year=2015 |title=Guidelines |publisher=[[University of California Agriculture and Natural Resources]] |website=[[Statewide IPM Program]], Agriculture and Natural Resources, University of California Regents of the University of California |url=https://ipm.ucanr.edu/agriculture/cotton/alfalfa-and-cabbage-loopers/}}</ref>

''{{Section link || Aphis gossypii}}'' is the most common aphid in this crop.<ref name="agca">{{cite web |access-date=2023-06-25 |year=2015 |title=Guidelines |publisher=[[University of California Agriculture and Natural Resources]] |website=[[Statewide IPM Program]], Agriculture and Natural Resources, University of California Regents of the University of California |url=https://ipm.ucanr.edu/agriculture/cotton/cotton-aphid/}}</ref>

''{{Section link || Agrotis ipsilon}}'' is a pest of the young plants.<ref name="apbc">{{cite web |access-date=2023-06-26 |year=2015 |title=Guidelines |publisher=[[University of California Agriculture and Natural Resources]] |website=[[Statewide IPM Program]], Agriculture and Natural Resources, University of California Regents of the University of California |url=https://ipm.ucanr.edu/agriculture/cotton/cutworms/}}</ref>

{{anchor|Cucumber}}

===Cucumbers===
[[File:Persian cucumbers at Campbell farmer's market.jpg|thumb|[[Campbell, California|Campbell]] farmer's market]]
From 1997{{endash}}2000,<ref name="Schrader-et-al-2002">{{cite book |last1=Schrader |first1=Wayne L. |last2=Aguiar |first2=Jose L. |last3=Mayberry |first3=Keith S. |title=Cucumber Production in California |publisher=[[University of California, Agriculture and Natural Resources]] |year=2002 |isbn=978-1-60107-228-3 |doi=10.3733/ucanr.8050 |pages=18}}</ref> the state's acreage varied between {{convert|10,500{{endash}}11,000|acre}} bringing in $57,969,000{{endash}}$67,744,000. By 2021<ref name="USDA-NASS-stats-2021" /> however the harvest was down to {{convert|1,038,500|scwt|MT ST}} from {{convert|6,700|acre}} for a yield of {{convert|155|scwt/acre|MT/ha ST/acre}}, and at {{convert|23.2|$/scwt|$/MT $/ST}} that brought only $24,043,000.

===Dairy===
{{Excerpt|California dairy industry}}

{{anchor|Date}}

===Dates===
Over 90% of US production is grown here, and most of that in the [[Coachella Valley]].<ref name="AgMRC-dates">{{cite web |title=Dates |website=[[Agricultural Marketing Resource Center]] |date=May 11, 2022 |url=http://www.agmrc.org/commodities-products/fruits/dates |access-date=May 11, 2022}}</ref> The distant second is [[Arizona]].<ref name="AgMRC-dates" /> The 2020 harvest was {{convert|49,300|ST}} from {{convert|12,500|acre}}, for a [[crop yield|yield]] of {{convert|3.94|ST/acre}}.<ref name="AgMRC-dates" /> The year's crop sold for $114 million, an average of {{convert|2,320|$/ST|0}}.<ref name="AgMRC-dates" /> The harvest extends from the beginning of October to the middle of December.<ref name="Food">{{cite web |title=California Agricultural Statistics Review 2019-2020 |website=[[California Department of Food and Agriculture]] |url=http://www.cdfa.ca.gov/Statistics/PDFs/2020_Ag_Stats_Review.pdf |access-date=May 11, 2022}}</ref>

The detection of the Red Palm Weevil (''Rhynchophorus ferrugineus'') in 2010 was very concerning to this valuable industry.<ref name="Hoddle-et-al-2016" /><ref name="UCR-RPW" /> See {{section link||Red Palm Weevil}}.

{{anchor|Fig}}

===Figs===
[[File:Imwalle Farms - 2021-09-25 - Sarah Stierch 01.jpg|thumb|[[Santa Rosa, California|Santa Rosa]]]]
[[Calimyrna]] is a common [[fig cultivar|cultivar]] here.<ref name="Gross-et-al-2014" /><ref name="Burks-Brandl-2004" />
 
[[Commodity food|Commodity]] figs here suffer from many [[insect crop pest|insect pests]] here. See {{section link||Carpenter worm}}, {{section link||Darkling ground beetle}}, {{section link||Dried fruit beetle}}, {{section link||Freeman sap beetle}}, {{section link||Confused sap beetle}}, {{section link||Fig beetle}}, {{section link||Fig mite}}, {{section link||Fig scale}}, and {{section link||Navel orangeworm}}.

For common diseases see {{section link||Fig Smut}} and {{section link||Alternaria Rot of Fig}}.

===Fish and shellfish===
Relative to traditional farming, [[aquaculture]] is a small part of California's agricultural economy, generating only $175 million in 2014.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Richard |first1=Chris |title=California Aquaculture Companies Explore Sustainable Fish Farming |url=https://www.kqed.org/science/21279/aquaculture-companies-explore-sustainable-fish-farming |access-date=October 10, 2019 |agency=KQED |date=September 8, 2014}}</ref> Oysters, abalone, mussels, channel catfish, rainbow trout, and salmon are farmed commercially.<ref>{{cite web |title=Aquaculture: Potential for Small Scale Farmers in California |url=http://sfp.ucdavis.edu/pubs/brochures/aquaculture/ |website=University of California Agriculture and Natural Resources Small Farm Program |publisher=Division of Agriculture and Natural Resources, University of California |access-date=October 10, 2019}}</ref>

{{anchor|Grain}}

===Grapes===
{{For|the wine harvest|#Wine}}
{{Excerpt|California grape cultivation|only=paragraphs}}
[[File:IN LETTUCE FIELDS ALONG THE COLORADO RIVER, MEXICAN FARM WORKER CARRIES BOXES TO FIELD PICKERS - NARA - 549084.jpg|thumb|Along the [[Colorado River]]]]

===Lettuce===
UCCE's [[Vegetable Research & Information Center]] provides comprehensive production advice for this crop.<ref name="lettvric">{{cite web |access-date=January 22, 2023 |year=2021 |title=Lettuce |website=[[UC Vegetable Research & Information Center]] |url=https://vric.ucdavis.edu/veg_info_crop/lettuce.htm}}</ref>

Lettuce (''[[Lactuca sativa]]'') is commercially grown in the [[Central Valley (California)|Central Valley]], [[California Central Coast|Central Coast]], and [[Deserts of California|deserts]] (the [[Imperial Valley|Imperial]] and [[Coachella Valley|Coachella]] valleys).<ref name="lettintro">{{cite web |access-date=October 16, 2022 |date=April 2017 |id=3450 |title=Introduction / Lettuce / Agriculture: Pest Management Guidelines |url=https://www2.ipm.ucanr.edu/agriculture/lettuce/introduction/ |website=[[University of California Integrated Pest Management|UC Integrated Pest Management]] |publisher=UC Agriculture}}</ref> It is one of the most labor-intensive crops in the state.<ref name="TheProblem">{{cite book |year=2018 |edition=1 |publisher=[[Academic Press]] |first2=Diane |first1=J. |last2=Charlton |last1=Taylor |isbn=9780128164099 |id={{isbn |9780128172681}} |title=The Farm Labor Problem: A Global Perspective |page=25}}</ref>

Aphids are a major problem for [[lettuce]] on the Central Coast.<ref name="Smith-Chaney-2007-bundle">
*{{cite journal |last1=Ssymank |first1=Axel |last2=Kearns |first2=C. A. |last3=Pape |first3=Thomas |last4=Thompson |first4=F. Christian |title=Pollinating Flies (Diptera): A major contribution to plant diversity and agricultural production |journal=[[Biodiversity (journal)|Biodiversity]] |publisher=[[Taylor & Francis]] |volume=9 |issue=1–2 |year=2008 |issn=1488-8386 |doi=10.1080/14888386.2008.9712892 |pages=86–89 |bibcode=2008Biodi...9a..86S |s2cid=39619017}}
*{{cite journal |last1=Smith |first1=Hugh A. |last2=Chaney |first2=William E. |title=A Survey of Syrphid Predators of ''Nasonovia ribisnigri'' in Organic Lettuce on the Central Coast of California |journal=[[Journal of Economic Entomology]] |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |volume=100 |issue=1 |date=February 1, 2007 |issn=0022-0493 |doi=10.1603/0022-0493(2007)100[39:asospo]2.0.co;2 |pages=39–48 |doi-broken-date=December 2, 2024 |pmid=17370807 |s2cid=20442282}}
</ref> See ''{{section link||Nasonovia ribisnigri}}'' for an important aphid, and ''{{section link||Toxomerus marginatus}}'' and ''{{section link||Platycheirus stegnus}}'' for biocontrols.

The Beet Armyworm (BAW, ''[[Spodoptera exigua]]'') is a [[polyphagous]] insect pest in this crop.<ref name="S-ex-lett-UC-IPM" /> There is wide geographic variation in timing with BAW, the [[San Joaquin Valley]] being vulnerable more in fall than spring, the [[Central Coast of California|Central Coast]] late summer, and lower desert valleys September and October in established crops and November and December in young plants.<ref name="S-ex-lett-UC-IPM" /> Natural control is significant, from parasitoids ''[[Hyposoter]] [[Hyposoter exiguae|exiguae]]'', ''[[Chelonus insularis]]'', and ''[[Lespesia archippivora]]'', and ''{{visible anchor|Spodoptera exigua nuclear polyhedrosis virus}}'' (SeNPV).<ref name="ISC-CABI-SeNPV">{{cite web |date=2019 |access-date=August 8, 2022 |publisher=[[Centre for Agriculture and Bioscience International|CABI]] |website=[[Invasive Species Compendium]] |url=https://www.cabi.org/isc/datasheet/51068 |title=''Spodoptera exigua nuclear polyhedrosis virus'' (SeNPV)}}</ref><ref name="S-ex-lett-UC-IPM" /> [[Discing]] as soon as possible after harvest and [[weed control]] to deny [[alternate host]]s will help.<ref name="S-ex-lett-UC-IPM" /> Insecticides used include [[methoxyfenozide]], [[Bacillus thuringiensis ssp. aizawai|''Bacillus thuringiensis'' ssp. ''aizawai'']], SeNPV, [[chlorantraniliprole]], [[spinosad]], [[indoxacarb]], [[emamectin benzoate]], [[methomyl]], [[ζ-cypermethrin]], and [[permethrin]].<ref name="S-ex-lett-UC-IPM" /> In [[organic agriculture|organic]], ''[[Bacillus thuringiensis]]'' and [[Entrust (chemical)|Entrust]] are used but note that any [[spinosad]] (including Entrust) will also harm the parasitoids.<ref name="S-ex-lett-UC-IPM" />

{{anchor|Melon}}

===Melons===
For a common pest see {{section link||Cotton Aphid}}.

{{anchor|Nectarine}}

===Nectarines===
[[File:Red stone fruit IMG 3278.jpg|frameless|right]]
[[File:Illustrated album of Alameda County, California; its early history and progress-agriculture, viticulture and horticulture-educational, manufacturing and railroad advantages-Oakland and (14758619134).jpg|thumb|1893 engraving of a [[Spanish missions in the Americas|Mission]] with nectarine trees]]
Because [[nectarine]]s are hairless peaches, for most information see {{section link||Peaches}}.

===Oak===
Oaks (genus ''[[Quercus]]'') are cultivated for [[ornamental plant|ornamental purposes]] and sometimes for [[acorn]]s.<ref name="Genetics-Evolution-Infectious-Diseases">{{cite book |last=Tibayrenc |first=Michel |title=Genetics and Evolution of Infectious Diseases |publisher=[[Elsevier Science]] |publication-place=[[St. Louis|Saint Louis, Mo, US]] |year=2017 |isbn=978-0-12-799942-5 |oclc=969639609 |pages=xvii+667}}</ref> For a devastating disease see {{section link||Sudden Oak Death}}.

===Okra===
[[Okra]] is not produced in any significant amount here.<ref name="UCANR-okra">{{cite book |last1=Aguiar |first1=José L |last2=McGiffen |first2=Milt |last3=Natwick |first3=Eric |last4=Takele |first4=Etaferahu |title=Okra Production in California |publisher=[[University of California, Agriculture and Natural Resources]] |year=2011 |isbn=978-1-60107-002-9 |doi=10.3733/ucanr.7210 |pages=3 |id=7210}}</ref> [[Imperial County]] grows the largest number of acres in the state.<ref name="UCANR-okra" />

===Oleander===
Oleander (''[[Nerium]]'' spp.) suffers from various ''Xylella fastidiosa'' diseases here and there is some question as to whether and to what degree it shares [[bacterial plant disease|inoculum]] with other crops including food crops.<ref name="diagnostic-SSRs-Xf">
*{{cite journal |year=2017 |doi-access=free |volume=8 |publisher=[[Frontiers Media]] |first2=Nicola |first1=Paolo |last2=Porta |pages=1–22 |last1=Baldi |journal=[[Frontiers in Plant Science]] |issn=1664-462X |pmid=28642764 |pmc=5462928 |doi=10.3389/fpls.2017.00944 |title=''Xylella fastidiosa'': Host Range and Advance in Molecular Identification Techniques}}<!--- Published by Frontiers but cited by the 2019 Annual Review by Morris & Moury, ... --->
*{{cite journal |year=2005 |issue=8 |volume=71 |first6=Andrew |first1=Hong |first5=Marta |first2=Edwin |first4=Samuel |last6=Walker |last1=Lin |last5=Francis |last4=Barros |last3=Hu |publisher=[[American Society for Microbiology]] |issn=0099-2240 |journal=[[Applied and Environmental Microbiology]] |last2=Civerolo |first3=Rong |pages=4888–4892 |doi=10.1128/aem.71.8.4888-4892.2005 |title=Multilocus Simple Sequence Repeat Markers for Differentiating Strains and Evaluating Genetic Diversity of ''Xylella fastidiosa'' |pmid=16085890 |pmc=1183328 |bibcode=2005ApEnM..71.4888L}}
</ref>

{{anchor|Olive}}

[[File:Olive Trees at B.R. Cohn Winery & Vineyard - Stierch.jpg|thumb | [[B. R. Cohn Winery]], 2008
]]

===Olives===
[[Newton Pierce]] surveyed olive culture in the state and throughout the country for the [[United States Department of Agriculture]] (USDA) in 1897.<ref name="yearbook1896">{{cite book |year=1897 |pages=371–390 |last=Pierce |first=Newton |publisher=[[U.S. Government Printing Office]] ([[United States Department of Agriculture]]) |oclc=1027034631 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=biIZAQAAIAAJ |title=Yearbook of the United States Department of Agriculture 1896 |author-link=Newton Pierce |chapter=Olive culture in the United States}}</ref>

Olives throughout the state suffer from the [[introduced species|introduced]] Olive Fruit Fly.<ref name="UC-IPM-olive-fruit-fly">{{cite web |url=http://www.ipm.ucdavis.edu/PMG/r583301311.html |title=UC IPM: UC Management Guidelines for Olive Fruit Fly on Olive |website=[[University of California Integrated Pest Management|UC Integrated Pest Management]] |publisher=UC Agriculture |access-date=June 7, 2022}}</ref> ''Neofusicoccum mediterraneum'', ''Diplodia mutila'', and ''D. seriata'' cause significant [[crop disease|disease]] here.<ref name="Moral-et-al-2019">
*{{cite journal |last1=Moral |first1=Juan |last2=Morgan |first2=David |last3=Trapero |first3=Antonio |last4=Michailides |first4=Themis J. |title=Ecology and Epidemiology of Diseases of Nut Crops and Olives Caused by Botryosphaeriaceae Fungi in California and Spain |journal=Plant Disease |publisher=[[American Phytopathological Society]] |volume=103 |issue=8 |year=2019 |issn=0191-2917 |doi=10.1094/pdis-03-19-0622-fe |pages=1809–1827 |pmid=31232653 |s2cid=132900491|doi-access=free }}
*{{cite journal |last1=Úrbez-Torres |first1=J. R. |last2=Peduto |first2=F. |last3=Vossen |first3=P. M. |last4=Krueger |first4=W. H. |last5=Gubler |first5=W. D. |title=Olive Twig and Branch Dieback: Etiology, Incidence, and Distribution in California |journal=[[Plant Disease (journal)|Plant Disease]] |publisher=[[American Phytopathological Society]] |volume=97 |issue=2 |year=2013 |issn=0191-2917 |doi=10.1094/pdis-04-12-0390-re |pages=231–244 |pmid=30722318|doi-access=free }}
*{{cite journal |last1=Moral |first1=Juan |last2=Muñoz-Díez |first2=Concepción |last3=González |first3=Nazaret |last4=Trapero |first4=Antonio |last5=Michailides |first5=Themis J. |title=Characterization and Pathogenicity of ''Botryosphaeriaceae'' Species Collected from Olive and Other Hosts in Spain and California |journal=[[Phytopathology (journal)|Phytopathology]] |publisher=[[American Phytopathological Society]] |volume=100 |issue=12 |year=2010 |issn=0031-949X |doi=10.1094/phyto-12-09-0343 |pages=1340–1351 |pmid=20731532|doi-access=free }}
</ref> More specific controls than currently available are needed for ''N. mediterraneum'' in highly susceptible [[olive cultivar|cultivars]], namely [[Sevillano (olive)|Sevillano]] and [[Gordal]], and early harvest may be needed for ''D. seriata''.<ref name="Moral-et-al-2019" /> See {{section link||Olive Fruit Fly}}, ''{{section link||Neofusicoccum mediterraneum}}'', ''{{section link||Diplodia mutila}}'', and ''{{section link||Diplodia seriata}}''.

The [[Olive Oil Commission of California]] was founded in 2014 as an entity of the [[State of California]]. The commission was established as a result of a bill introduced by [[Lois Wolk]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Governor signs Wolk bill to establish state olive oil commission |url=http://sd03.senate.ca.gov/news/2013-09-24-governor-signs-wolk-bill-establish-state-olive-oil-commission |access-date=July 13, 2015 |archive-date=July 13, 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150713154849/http://sd03.senate.ca.gov/news/2013-09-24-governor-signs-wolk-bill-establish-state-olive-oil-commission |url-status=dead }}</ref> The primary goal is to improve the sales of olive oil grown in California.<ref>{{cite web |title=The Olive Oil Commission of California |url=http://www.oliveoilcommission.org/ |access-date=July 10, 2015}}</ref>

===Parsley===
[[Soil solarization]] is an alternative to [[soil treatment]] with [[methyl bromide]].<ref name="Stapleton-et-al-2005-bundle">
*{{cite journal |last1=Stapleton |first1=James J |last2=Molinar |first2=Richard H |last3=Lynn-Patterson |first3=Kris |last4=McFeeters |first4=Stuart K |last5=Shrestha |first5=Anil |title=Methyl bromide alternatives … Soil solarization provides weed control for limited-resource and organic growers in warmer climates |journal=[[California Agriculture]] |publisher=[[University of California Division of Agriculture and Natural Resources|UC Agriculture]] |volume=59 |issue=2 |year=2005 |issn=0008-0845 |doi=10.3733/ca.v059n02p84 |pages=84–89 |s2cid=56211614|doi-access=free }}
*{{cite book |last1=D'Addabbo |first1=Trifone |last2=Miccolis |first2=Vito |last3=Basile |first3=Martino |last4=Candido |first4=Vincenzo |series=Sustainable Agriculture Reviews |title=Sociology, Organic Farming, Climate Change and Soil Science |chapter=Soil Solarization and Sustainable Agriculture |publisher=[[Springer Netherlands]] |publication-place=[[Dordrecht]], Ne |date=November 6, 2009 |volume=3 |isbn=978-90-481-3332-1 |issn=2210-4410 |doi=10.1007/978-90-481-3333-8_9 |pages=217–274 |s2cid=85754446}}
*{{cite journal |last=Hanson |first=B. D. |title=Weed control with methyl bromide alternatives |journal=[[CAB Reviews]] |publisher=[[CABI Publishing]] |volume=1 |issue=63 |date=April 1, 2006 |issn=1749-8848 |doi=10.1079/pavsnnr20061063 |pages=1–13 |s2cid=67794073}}
</ref> Stapleton ''et al.'', 2005 eliminate almost 100% of [[annual weed]]s in this crop with solarization alone.<ref name="Stapleton-et-al-2005-bundle" /> It completely fails against [[yellow nutsedge]] however.<ref name="Stapleton-et-al-2005-bundle" />

{{anchor|Peach}}

===Peaches===
{{main|Production of peaches in California}}
[[File:FuzzyPeachesDisplay.jpg|thumb | right | [[Grocery store]] in [[Fortuna, California|Fortuna]], 2014 | alt=On sale at a [[grocery store]] in [[Fortuna, California|Fortuna]], 2014]]
[[File:Peach Trees in Bloom, Fairmont Dr., Redlands, CA 3-2012 (6979590833).jpg|thumb | right | [[Redlands, California|Redlands]] | alt=Blooming trees, [[Redlands, California|Redlands]]]]
[[File:Fortuna Farmers Market Peaches.jpg|thumb | right | [[Fortuna, California|Fortuna]] Farmers' Market, 2016]]
[[File:Yokut Indian women and two boys preparing peaches, Tule River Reservation near Porterville, California, ca.1900 (CHS-3796).jpg|thumb | right | [[Yokuts]], [[Tule River Reservation]] ~1900AD | alt=[[Yokuts]] woman and two boys preparing peaches on the [[Tule River Reservation]] ~1900AD]]
[[File:NRCSCA97008 - California (1347)(NRCS Photo Gallery).tif|thumb | [[Yuba City]]]]

California is the country's largest grower of [[peach]]es, producing about 70% of the total.<ref name="UFl-IFAS-EDIS-peach-econ">{{cite web |title=FE1016/FE1016: Establishment and Production Costs for Peach Orchards in Florida: Enterprise Budget and Profitability Analysis |website=Electronic Data Information Source |publisher=[[Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences]] |date=February 26, 2021 |url=http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/publication/FE1016 |access-date=June 8, 2022}}</ref>

The {{visible anchor|California Freestone Peach Association}} (CFPA)<ref name="Cal-Peach" /> and {{visible anchor|California Canning Peach Association|California Cling Peach Board|Cal Peach|text=California Canning Peach Association/California Cling Peach Board}} (CCPA)<ref name="Cal-Peach">{{cite web |title=Cal Peach |website=[[California Canning Peach Association]] |date=December 15, 2015 |url=http://www.calpeach.com/ |access-date=July 6, 2022}}</ref><ref name="Cling-Board">{{cite web |title=California Cling Peaches |website=[[California Cling Peach Board]] |url=http://californiaclingpeaches.com/ |access-date=July 6, 2022}}</ref> represent the industry.<ref name="Ag-Directory">{{cite web |url=http://www.cdfa.ca.gov/files/pdf/card/ResDir06_ContactInfo.pdf |title=California Agricultural Directory |date=2006 |author=California Department of Food and Agriculture |author-link=California Department of Food and Agriculture}}</ref> (Although the CFPA is a separate incorporation, it has always been operated by the CCPA's staff.) The overwhelming majority of the country's peaches are grown here, {{as of|2020|alt=in 2020}} {{convert|468,000|ST}} for sales of $308.3 million.<ref name="AgMRC-peach"/> Since 1980 the total value of the harvest has been slightly increasing.<ref name="AgMRC-peach" /> The acreage (hectares) planted in peach has been declining however, down to {{convert|73,000|acre}} {{as of|2020|lc=yes}}.<ref name="AgMRC-peach">{{cite web |title=Peaches |website=[[Agricultural Marketing Resource Center]], USDA |date=July 11, 2022 |url=https://www.agmrc.org/commodities-products/fruits/peaches |access-date=July 11, 2022}}</ref>

{{As of|2021}} [[cling peach|cling]] deliveries for processing purposes have been on a downward trend for years.<ref name="Cal-Peach-cling-stats">{{cite web |title=Research – Cal Peach |website=[[Cal Peach]] |date=December 15, 2015 |url=http://www.calpeach.com/research/ |access-date=July 6, 2022}}</ref> From {{convert|430,000|ST}} in 2010, delivered tonnage declined to {{convert|225,000|ST}} in 2021.<ref name="Cal-Peach-cling-stats" /> Cling [[crop yield|yield]] shows no clear trend over the same time, bouncing between {{convert|18.1|ST/acre}} and {{convert|15.3|ST/acre}}.<ref name="Cal-Peach-cling-stats" />

Prices have been trending mostly upward, from {{convert|317|$/ST}} in 2012 to {{convert|518|$/ST}}.<ref name="Cal-Peach-cling-stats" />

CCPA expects 2022 deliveries to be between {{convert|214,200-232,400|ST}} from a yield of {{convert|15.3-16.6|ST/acre}}.<ref name="Cal-Peach-cling-stats" />

[[UC Davis|UCD]] hosts one of the major [[breeding of peach|breeding programs]] in the country.<ref name="Iezzoni-et-al-2020">{{cite journal |last1=Iezzoni |first1=Amy F. |last2=McFerson |first2=Jim |last3=Luby |first3=James |last4=Gasic |first4=Ksenija |last5=Whitaker |first5=Vance |last6=Bassil |first6=Nahla |last7=Yue |first7=Chengyan |last8=Gallardo |first8=Karina |last9=McCracken |first9=Vicki |last10=Coe |first10=Michael |last11=Hardner |first11=Craig |last12=Zurn |first12=Jason D. |last13=Hokanson |first13=Stan |last14=van de Weg |first14=Eric |last15=Jung |first15=Sook |last16=Main |first16=Dorrie |last17=da Silva Linge |first17=Cassia |last18=Vanderzande |first18=Stijn |last19=Davis |first19=Thomas M. |last20=Mahoney |first20=Lise L. |last21=Finn |first21=Chad |last22=Peace |first22=Cameron |title=RosBREED: bridging the chasm between discovery and application to enable DNA-informed breeding in rosaceous crops |journal=[[Horticulture Research]] |publisher=[[Nature Portfolio]] |volume=7 |issue=1 |date=November 1, 2020 |page=177 |issn=2662-6810 |doi=10.1038/s41438-020-00398-7 |pmid=33328430 |pmc=7603521 |bibcode=2020HorR....7..177I |s2cid=226217178}}</ref> Most of the [[private breeding]] programs for peach in the country are found in California, with a significant amount of the [[public breeding]] also being performed here.<ref name="Iezzoni-et-al-2020" />

{{anchor|Pears}}

===Pear===
[[File:NRCSCA06117 - California (1143)(NRCS Photo Gallery).tif|thumb|right|A field of growing pear trees|alt=Trees]]
Cultivation is heavily pesticide-dependent.<ref name="Impact-IPM">{{cite book |date=2018 |pages=203–224/xv+576 |publication-place=[[Washington, DC]], US |series=[[ACS Symposium Series]] |issn=0097-6156 |publisher=[[American Chemical Society]] Division of Agrochemicals ([[Oxford University Press]]) |editor-first2=Scott |editor-last1=Zhang |editor-first1=Minghua |editor-last2=Jackson |editor-first3=Mark A. |editor-last3=Robertson |editor-first4=Michael R. |editor-last4=Zeiss |title=Managing and Analyzing Pesticide Use Data for Pest Management, Environmental Monitoring, Public Health, and Public Policy |isbn=9780841232891 |id={{isbn |9780841232907}}. {{LCCN |2018034681}} |lccn=2018025937 |oclc=1045640106 |number=1283 |last1=Epstein |first1=Lynn |last2=Zhang |first2=Minghua |doi=10.1021/bk-2018-1283.ch010 |chapter=The Impact of Integrated Pest Management and Regulation on Agricultural Pesticide Use in California}}</ref> In the 1970s that put growers on the "[[pesticide treadmill]]" {{endash}} increasing control costs, [[pesticide resistance|resistance]], and resurgence of previously controlled adversaries.<ref name="Impact-IPM" /> In response the orchards, the UC system, and Sacramento have put together IPM plans which have increased control and decreased applications.<ref name="Impact-IPM" /> Fire Blight is a major concern as it is throughout the continent.<ref name="antibiotic" /> Fire Blight is so severe that it largely determines what areas may be commercially successful in pear and which may not, restricted to geographies inhospitable to epidemics.<ref name="antibiotic" /> Even so, [[antibacterial]]s are necessary.<ref name="antibiotic" /> Experts believe that major [[efficacy loss]] or a [[regulation of pesticides in the United States|regulatory ban]] would effectively end [[Bartlett pear|Bartlett]] cultivation here, 55% of the country's pears.<ref name="antibiotic" />

[[University of California, Riverside|UCR]] provides [[integrated pest management]] best practices through UCANR.<ref name="Pyrus">{{cite web |access-date=September 20, 2022 |publisher=[[University of California, Riverside]] |url=https://www2.ipm.ucanr.edu/agriculture/pear/ |title=Agriculture: Pear}}</ref> Pear Psylla is one of the most serious of these pests, both due to its speed of [[insecticide resistance evolution (disambiguation)|insecticide resistance evolution]] and because it [[vector (epidemiology)|vectors]]<ref name="Pyrus-Psylla">{{cite web |access-date=September 20, 2022 |id=3455 |date=November 2012 |publisher=[[University of California, Riverside]] |url=https://www2.ipm.ucanr.edu/agriculture/pear/pear-psylla/ |title=Agriculture: Pear: Pear Psylla}}</ref> the pear decline phytoplasma.<ref name="Pyrus-decline" /> The Asian pears ''[[Pyrus serotina|P. serotina]]'' and ''[[Pyrus ussuriensis|P. ussuriensis]]'' have been widely used as [[rootstocks]] but are not being used in new plantings because their severe vulnerability to the decline phytoplasma.<ref name="Pyrus-decline">{{cite web |access-date=September 20, 2022 |id=3455 |date=November 2012 |publisher=[[University of California, Riverside]] |url=https://www2.ipm.ucanr.edu/agriculture/pear/pear-psylla/ |title=Agriculture: Pear: Pear Decline}}</ref> The {{visible anchor|California Pear Sawfly|Pristiphora abbreviata}} (''[[Pristiphora abbreviata]]'', not to be confused with the Pear Slug ''[[Caliroa cerasi]]'') is a minor pest here and usually easily controlled.<ref name="California-PSF" /> UC IPM recommends Entrust and Success (two [[Spinosad]] formulations).<ref name="California-PSF">{{cite web |access-date=September 20, 2022 |id=3455 |date=November 2012 |publisher=[[University of California, Riverside]] |url=https://www2.ipm.ucanr.edu/agriculture/pear/California-pear-sawfly/ |title=Agriculture: Pear: California Pear Sawfly}}</ref>

[[Integrated pest management]] (IPM) has a long history of successful use in this crop.<ref name="Malaria-Vectors" >{{Cite journal |issue=7 |year=2017 |publisher=[[Public Library of Science]] |volume=9 |first8=Willem |first7=Jeff |first6=Joop |first5=Bruce |first4=Henk |first3=Andrew |first2=H. |first1=Matthew |last8=Takken |last7=Waage |last6=van Lenteren |last5=Tabashnik |last4=van den Berg |last3=Read |last2=Godfray |last1=Thomas |journal=[[PLOS Medicine]] |issn=1549-1676 |doi=10.1371/journal.pmed.1001262 |page=e1001262 |title=Lessons from Agriculture for the Sustainable Management of Malaria Vectors |pmid=22802742 |pmc=3393651 |author-link5=Bruce Tabashnik |doi-access=free }}</ref>

{{anchor|Pistachio}}

===Pistachios===
Total pistachio acreage increased from {{convert|106,000 | to |554,000 |acres}} between 2002 and 2022 as the hardy trees can thrive with moderately salty water and soil, which is widespread in parts of the Central Valley.<ref>{{Cite web |last1=James |first1=Ian |last2=Gauthier |first2=Robert |date=2023-07-02 |title='It's a disaster': California farmer faces ordeal as pistachio farm sits underwater |url=https://www.latimes.com/environment/story/2023-07-02/california-pistachio-farmer-flood-ordeal |access-date=2023-07-02 |website=Los Angeles Times |language=en-US}}</ref>

''[[Ferrisia]] [[Ferrisia gilli|gilli]]'' is an [[agricultural pest|economically significant pest]] of pistachio here.<ref name="Daane-et-al-2008">{{cite journal |last1=Daane |first1=Kent M. |last2=Cooper |first2=Monica L. |last3=Triapitsyn |first3=Serguei V. |last4=Walton |first4=Vaughn M. |last5=Yokota |first5=Glenn Y. |last6=Haviland |first6=David R. |last7=Bentley |first7=Walt J. |last8=Godfrey |first8=Kris E. |last9=Wunderlich |first9=Lynn R. |title=Vineyard managers and researchers seek sustainable solutions for mealybugs, a changing pest complex |journal=[[California Agriculture]] |publisher=[[University of California Division of Agriculture and Natural Resources|UC Agriculture and Natural Resources]] |volume=62 |issue=4 |year=2008 |issn=0008-0845 |doi=10.3733/ca.v062n04p167 |pages=167–176 |s2cid=54928048|doi-access=free }}</ref> ''F. gilli'' was formerly known as a California population of ''[[Ferrisia virgata|F. virgata]]'', only being studied sufficiently to recognize that it is distinguishable from ''F. virgata'' due to its severe impact on pistachio and almond in this state.<ref name="Daane-et-al-2008" /> [[Jackrabbit]]s, [[cottontail]]s, and [[brush rabbit]]s mostly damage pistachio trees when other food sources run out in winter or early spring.<ref name="UC-IPM-pistachio-rabbits" /> [[UC IPM]] recommends [[fence|fencing]], [[tree guard]]s, [[Bait (luring substance)|baiting]], [[shooting]], [[animal repellent|repellent]]s, and [[trapping]].<ref name="UC-IPM-pistachio-rabbits" />

''[[Alternaria]]'' and ''[[Botryosphaeria dothidea]]'' are significant [[fungal crop disease|fungal diseases]] of pistachios here which often receive [[strobilurin]], [[iprodione]], [[azoxystrobin]], and [[tebuconazole]] treatments.<ref name="Ma-Michailides-2005-rev">{{cite journal |last1=Ma |first1=Zhonghua |last2=Michailides |first2=Themis J. |title=Advances in understanding molecular mechanisms of fungicide resistance and molecular detection of resistant genotypes in phytopathogenic fungi |journal=[[Crop Protection (journal)|Crop Protection]] |publisher=[[Elsevier]] |volume=24 |issue=10 |year=2005 |issn=0261-2194 |doi=10.1016/j.cropro.2005.01.011 |pages=853–863 |bibcode=2005CrPro..24..853M |s2cid=84141143}}</ref> See ''{{section link||Alternaria}}'' and ''{{section link||Botryosphaeria dothidea}}''.

{{anchor|Plum}}

===Plums===
[[File:Picking Prunes in California (NBY 899).jpg|thumb|Prunes, 1900s|alt=Picking prunes, ~1900-1909]]
[[File:06793-Kings County-1905-Picking Prunes in Kings County-Brück & Sohn Kunstverlag.jpg|thumb|[[Kings County, California|Kings County]]|alt=Picking prunes in [[Kings County, California|Kings County]], 1905]]
[[File:Campbell Prune Drier, California (NYPL b12647398-70043).tiff|thumb|Drying prunes, 1908 or 1909]]
96% of the country's [[prune]]s and >70% of [[plum]]s are grown here.<ref name="plums-Ag-Dept">{{cite web |url=http://apps1.cdfa.ca.gov/FertilizerResearch/docs/Prune_Plum_Production_CA.pdf |title=Prune and Plum Production in California |first1=Patricia |last1=Lazicki |first2=Daniel |last2=Geisseler |first3=William R. |last3=Horwath |publisher=[[California Department of Agriculture]] & [[UC Davis]] |date=June 2016}}</ref> Of that, >80% has come from the [[Sacramento Valley]] since the 1960s.<ref name="plums-Ag-Dept" /> For an invasive pest in the [[Bay Area]], see {{section link||Plum Bud Gall Mite}}.<ref name="Diekmann-et-al-2021">{{cite web |title=Plum Bud Gall Mite: An Emerging Pest in the Greater Bay Area |publisher=[[UCCE |UCCE Santa Clara]] |date=September 2021 |first1=Lucy |last1=Diekmann |first2=Aparna |last2=Gazula |first3=Krysla |last3=Grothe |url=http://mgsantaclara.ucanr.edu/files/300211.pdf |id=300211}}</ref>

===Pome===
Pomes grown here include {{section link||Apple}} and {{section link||Pear}}. For a common disease see {{section link||Fire Blight}}.

{{anchor|Pomegranate}}

===Pomegranates===
In [[pomegranate]] (''Punica granatum''), Black Heart (or "Heart Rot") is one of the most common diseases, as it is around the world.<ref name="Palou-Smilanick-2020"/>{{rp|page=192}} See {{section link||Black Heart}}.

'''''{{Big|Prunus}}'''''

For ''Prunus'' spp. see {{section link||Stonefruit}}.

{{anchor|Raspberries}}

===Raspberry===
Over 80% of US raspberries (''[[Rubus]]'' spp.) are grown here.<ref name="Cal-Berr" /> The country's consumption has increased eightfold between 2001 and 2021.<ref name="Cal-Berr" /> This crop is 15% of the state's fresh berry sales.<ref name="Cal-Berr" /> Acreage (number of hectares) before 2014 is unknown, but in that year {{convert|6,800|acre}} produced {{convert|1.4|e6scwt|MT ST}} selling for $434 million, then the next year {{convert|9,700|acre}} produced {{convert|2|e6scwt|MT ST}} worth $547 million, and in 2016 {{convert|9,700|acre}} produced {{convert|2.1|e6scwt|MT ST|abbr=off}} for $358 million, worth more than the peach harvest and four times the pear harvest.<ref name="Cal-Berr" /> The state has the opportunity to capture much of the market because {{as of|2021|lc=yes}} most of the raspberry (55%), blackberry, and blueberry market in the country is imported, with Mexico supplying 98% of imported raspberry and they have probably reached their limit.<ref name="Cal-Berr" /> California produces the most fresh market red raspberries, while [[Washington (state)|Washington]] is highest for the processed market.<ref name="Cal-Berr" /> Because the recent expansion has taken acres that had been [[pasture]], pest and disease pressure is very small {{endash}} making [[organic agriculture|organic]] an easy option.<ref name="Cal-Berr" /> The available acreage for that kind of conversion may have reached the limit {{as of|2021|lc=yes}} however.<ref name="Cal-Berr" /> Pre-transplant [[soil fumigation]] is necessary in [[conventional agriculture|conventional]], making organic inviable if this kind of new(-to caneberry) acreage is not available.<ref name="Cal-Berr" /> [[Driscoll's]] is the [[marketer]] of 90% of raspberries from California and Mexico sold into the US.<ref name="Cal-Berr">{{cite book |edition=2 |access-date=July 25, 2022 |year=2021 |publisher=University of California [[Giannini Foundation of Agricultural Economics]] |url=https://giannini.ucop.edu/publications/cal-ag-book/ |isbn=978-0-578-71524-7 |title=California Agriculture: Dimensions and Issues |first1=Rachael E. |last1=Goodhue |first2=Philip L. |last2=Martin |chapter=11. California Berries}}</ref>

===Rice===
{{Further|Rice production in the United States}}
By 2006, California produced the [[Rice production in the United States|second-largest rice crop in the United States]],<ref name="CRC region">{{cite web |url=http://calrice.org/e7b_cas_rice_growing_region.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060210141916/http://calrice.org/e7b_cas_rice_growing_region.htm |archive-date=February 10, 2006 |title=California's Rice Growing Region |publisher=California Rice Commission |access-date=August 10, 2007}}</ref> after Arkansas, with production concentrated in six counties north of [[Sacramento, California|Sacramento]].<ref name="CRC economic">{{cite web |url=http://www.calrice.org/c3a_economic_impact.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060426220417/http://www.calrice.org/c3a_economic_impact.htm |archive-date=April 26, 2006 |title=The economic contributions of the California rice industry |last1=Sumner |first1=Daniel A. |last2=Brunke |first2=Henrich |date=September 2003 |access-date=August 10, 2007 |publisher=California Rice Commission}}</ref>

California's production is dominated by short- and medium-grain [[Japanese rice|''japonica'']] varieties, including cultivars developed for the local climate such as [[Calrose]], which makes up as much as 85% of the state's crop.<ref name="CRC medium">{{cite web |url=http://www.calrice.org/b6a_medium.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060508222210/http://www.calrice.org/b6a_medium.htm |archive-date=May 8, 2006 |title=Medium Grain Varieties |publisher=California Rice Commission |access-date=August 10, 2007}}</ref>

===Small grains===
UC ANR ([[University of California Division of Agriculture and Natural Resources]]) has a program specifically for [[small grains]].<ref name="ANR-small" /> UCANR provides [[pest management]] information and [[grain farming|cultivation practices]] and organizes farmer education events.<ref name="ANR-small" /> The small grains grown here are primarily [[wheat]], [[barley]], [[oat]]s, and [[triticale]],<ref name="ANR-small">{{cite web |title=Welcome to UC Small Grains Research & Information |access-date=November 21, 2022 |year=2022 |publisher=[[University of California Division of Agriculture and Natural Resources]] |url=https://smallgrains.ucanr.edu}}</ref> see {{section link||Barley}} and {{section link||Wheat}}. [[UC-IPM]] also produces publications specifically for pest management in these crops.<ref name="Small">{{cite web |access-date=November 21, 2022 |date=2020 |publisher=[[University of California Division of Agriculture and Natural Resources]] |url=https://www2.ipm.ucanr.edu/agriculture/small-grains/ |title=Agriculture: Pest Management Guidelines Small Grains}}</ref>

Although small grains are not a large part of the overall agricultural productivity of the state, they are important enough in particular locations for ANR to have [[agricultural extension|Extension]] workers especially for [[San Diego County]],<ref name="ANR-contact-small" /> [[Kings County, California|Kings County]],<ref name="ANR-contact-small" /> [[San Joaquin County]],<ref name="ANR-contact-small" /> [[Siskiyou County]],<ref name="ANR-contact-small" /> [[Lassen County]],<ref name="ANR-contact-small" /> [[Sutter County, California|Sutter-]] and [[Yuba County, California|Yuba-]] and [[Colusa County, California|Colusa-]] Counties,<ref name="Sutter-Yuba-field">{{cite web |access-date=November 21, 2022 |year=2022 |publisher=[[University of California Cooperative Extension, Sutter-Yuba Counties]] |url=https://cesutter.ucanr.edu/SacramentoValleyFieldCrops/ |title=Sacramento Valley Field Crops - Cooperative Extension, Sutter-Yuba Counties}}</ref><ref name="ANR-contact-small" /> [[Davis, California|Davis]],<ref name="ANR-contact-small" /> [[Kern County, California|Kern County]],<ref name="ANR-contact-small" /> [[Woodland, California|Woodland, Yolo County]],<ref name="ANR-contact-small" /> [[Tulelake, California|Tulelake, Siskiyou]],<ref name="ANR-contact-small" /> [[Tulare, California|Tulare]],<ref name="ANR-contact-small">{{cite web |access-date=November 21, 2022 |year=2022 |publisher=[[University of California Division of Agriculture and Natural Resources]] |url=https://smallgrains.ucanr.edu/Contact_Us/ |title=Contact Us |archive-date=November 21, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221121210234/https://smallgrains.ucanr.edu/Contact_Us/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> and [[Sonoma County|Sonoma]].<ref name="Sonoma-small">{{cite web |access-date=November 21, 2022 |year=2022 |publisher=[[University of California Cooperative Extension Sonoma]] |url=https://cesonoma.ucanr.edu/SpecialtyCrops/Growing_Specialty_Grains/ |title=Growing Specialty Grains - UCCE Sonoma County}}</ref>

{{Visible anchor | Golden State Grains}} is an industry initiative which also cooperates extensively with the [[University of California]] breeding programs.<ref name="Golden-State-small" /> GSG connects future farmers, present farmers, seed suppliers, processors, and consumers.<ref name="Golden-State-small">{{cite web |title=Building our Grain Community |access-date=November 21, 2022 |year=2022 |publisher=[[Golden State Grains]] |url=https://www.goldenstategrains.com}}</ref>

See {{Section link ||Wild beet}} for a weed of these crops.

{{anchor|Stonefruits|Prunus}}

===Stonefruit===
Stonefruits are crops of the genus ''[[Prunus]]''. Largest harvests by weight are almond, apricot, cherry, peach and plum.{{fact|date=February 2025}}

So much of North America's stonefruit is grown here that almost all available [[propagation material]] is adapted to California specifically.<ref name="Prunus-Germplasm" /> Few accessions are available which are appropriate anywhere else.<ref name="Prunus-Germplasm" /> Even so, these are really made for the previous situation in the state, in which lower densities prevailed and dwarfing [[rootstock]]s were not used.<ref name="Prunus-Germplasm" /> With increasing [[mechanized agriculture|mechanization]] there is a need for such rootstocks.<ref name="Prunus-Germplasm">{{cite web |url=https://www.ars-grin.gov/npgs/cgc_reports/prunusvuln2017.pdf |title=''Prunus'' Vulnerability Statement |date=March 2017 |author=''Prunus'' Crop Germplasm Committee |publisher=USDA ARS [[Germplasm Resources Information Network]]}}</ref>

{{clear}}
{{anchor|Strawberry}}

===Strawberries===
{{main|Production of strawberries in California}}
{{For-multi|other uses|Strawberry, California (disambiguation)|and|Strawberry Valley, California}}
[[File:Xp3-dot-us DSC8991.jpg|thumb | Strawberry field in Salinas]]
[[File:Strawberry fields in Carlsbad, April 2010, closeup.jpg|thumb | Strawberries in [[Carlsbad, California|Carlsbad]]]]
[[Strawberry|Strawberries]] (''Fragaria'' × ''ananassa'') in the United States are almost entirely grown in California {{endash}} 86% of fresh and 98% of frozen in 2017<ref name="straw-Cal-NatIPM">{{cite web |title=2021 Pest Management Strategic Plan for Strawberry in California |website=[[Regional Integrated Pest Management Centers]] Database |date=May 4, 2022 |url=http://ipmdata.ipmcenters.org/source_report.cfm?view=yes&sourceid=2468 |access-date=June 29, 2022}}</ref> {{endash}} with [[Florida]] a distant second.<ref name="Strawberry-Commiss-consumer" /><ref name="PSU-Ext">{{cite web |title=Strawberry Production |website=[[Penn State Extension]] |date=June 20, 2005 |url=http://extension.psu.edu/strawberry-production |access-date=June 6, 2022}}</ref> The 2017 harvest was {{convert|1,461.2|e3ST|e3MT|abbr=off}} worth $3,100,215,000.<ref name="straw-Cal-NatIPM" /> Of that 30.0% was from [[Monterey County, California|Monterey]], 28.6% from [[Ventura County, California|Ventura]], 20.0% from [[Santa Barbara County, California|Santa Barbara]], 10.0% from [[San Luis Obispo County, California|San Luis Obispo]], and 9.2% from [[Santa Cruz County, California|Santa Cruz]].<ref name="straw-Cal-NatIPM" /> The [[Watsonville]]/[[Salinas, California|Salinas]] strawberry zone in Santa Cruz/Monterey, and the Oxnard zone in Ventura, contribute heavily to those concentrations.

Production has risen almost [[monotonicity|monotonically]], from 2005 when {{convert|34,300|acre|ha}} were harvested, yielding {{convert|600|scwt/acre|kg/ha lb/acre}}, for a total yield of {{convert|20,580,000|scwt|MT ST}}. The average price being {{convert|54.60|$/scwt|$/kg $/lb}}, the 2005 season's harvest sold for $1,122,834,000.<ref name="straw-Cal-NatIPM" />

The [[California Strawberry Commission]] is the Agriculture Department body which advocates for strawberry growers. The CSC provides information for both growers<ref name="Strawberry-Commiss-grower">{{cite web |title=California Strawberry Commission |website=[[California Strawberry Commission]] |url=http://www.calstrawberry.com/ |access-date=June 3, 2022}}</ref> and consumers.<ref name="Strawberry-Commiss-consumer">{{cite web |title=Health Benefits, Recipes & Stories |website=[[California Strawberry Commission]] |date=May 23, 2022 |url=http://www.californiastrawberries.com/ |access-date=June 3, 2022}}</ref> Some towns have annual strawberry festivals, see {{section link|Strawberry festival|United States}}. The [[Driscoll's]] company began with strawberries here and still grows and sells here, and they have since expanded to other states, countries, and types of berries.

[[California Polytechnic State University, San Luis Obispo|Cal Poly]] runs the {{visible anchor|Strawberry Center}}<ref name="strawb-CalPoly">{{cite web |title=Strawberry Center |publisher=[[California Polytechnic State University, San Luis Obispo|Cal Poly]] |date=July 28, 2020 |url=http://strawberry.calpoly.edu/home |access-date=June 2, 2022}}</ref> for both research, and producer education.

[[Labor cost]]s have increased drastically since 2018 especially in this crop, see {{section link||Labor}}.

{{anchor|Lumber}}

===Timber===
Almost 40% of the state is [[forest]], {{convert|39.7|e6acre|e6ha sqmi km2|abbr=off}}.<ref name="Forest" /> Of that {{convert|16.7|e6acre|e6ha sqmi km2|abbr=off}} was maintained as [[timber]]land {{as of|1996|lc=yes}} of which about 77% is [[softwood]].<ref name="Forest" /> Most lumber grown here is [[Construction in California|used here in the construction industry]] and some additional lumber is imported from [[Western United States|nearby states]] and [[Western Canada|provinces]].<ref name="Forest">{{cite book |id=8070 |pages=19 |year=2003 |first3=William |last2=Goldman |first2=George |first1=Susanna |isbn=978-1-60107-248-1 |last1=Laaksonen-Craig |last3=McKillop |title=Forestry, Forest Industry, and Forest Products Consumption in California |doi=10.3733/ucanr.8070 |publisher=[[University of California, Agriculture and Natural Resources]] |s2cid=133879789}}</ref>

{{anchor|Tomato}}

===Tomatoes===
The Federal [[Risk Management Agency]] provides [[crop insurance]] for [[fresh market tomato]] here, through the regional office in Davis.<ref name="RMA-fresh-market-tomato">{{cite web |title=Fresh Market Tomatoes |website=[[Risk Management Agency]] |date=January 31, 2017 |url=https://www.rma.usda.gov/en/Fact-Sheets/Davis-Regional-Office-Fact-Sheets/Fresh-Market-Tomatoes-2017-CA |access-date=July 11, 2022}}</ref> 90% of FMT here comes from nine counties, [[San Joaquin County, California|San Joaquin County]], [[Merced County, California|Merced]], [[Fresno County, California|Fresno]], [[San Diego County, California|San Diego]], [[Kern County, California|Kern]], [[Stanislaus County, California|Stanislaus]], [[Kings County, California|Kings]], [[Tulare County, California|Tulare]], and [[Sacramento County, California|Sacramento]].<ref name="Strange-et-al-2000" /> In 1999 {{convert|44,000|acre}} were planted, yielding on average {{convert|12.5|ST/acre}}, for a gross dollar yield of {{convert|5,500|$/acre}}.<ref name="Strange-et-al-2000">{{cite book |last1=Strange |first1=Michelle Le |last2=Schrader |first2=Wayne L. |last3=Hartz |first3=Timothy K. |title=Fresh-Market Tomato Production in California |publisher=[[University of California, Agriculture and Natural Resources]] |year=2000 |isbn=978-1-60107-197-2 |doi=10.3733/ucanr.8017 |s2cid=168207532}}</ref>

Tomatoes contribute a mean of {{convert|1.77|lb/acre|kg/ha|adj=pre| <chem>N2O-N</chem> emissions}} per year in Mediterranean agriculture systems.<ref name="Verhoeven-2017" />

{{visible anchor|Varieties of tomato|Tomato varieties|text=[[variety of tomato|Varieties]] used here}} widely incorporate [[Meloidogyne resistance|''Meloidogyne'' resistance]].<ref name="integveg">{{cite book |date=2008 |pages=xx+356 |publication-place=[[Dordrecht]] |publisher=[[Springer Verlag]] |volume=2 |first2=K. G. |first1=A. |last2=Mukerji |last1=Ciancio |oclc=226070353 |id={{isbn |978-1-4020-6062-5}} |isbn=978-1-4020-6063-2 |series=Integrated Management of Plant Pests and Diseases |title=Integrated Management and Biocontrol of Vegetable and Grain Crops Nematodes}}</ref>{{rp|35}}

{{anchor|Walnut}}

===Walnuts===
{{main|Walnuts in California}}
[[File:Kurt Steindorf showing a Chandler Walnut-8821.jpg|thumb|Chandler Walnut on a Glenn County farm close to the Sacramento River during harvest season 2023]]
California walnuts account for nearly all the walnuts grown in the United States. In 2017, walnut production was the seventh most valuable agricultural commodity in California, valued at $1.59 billion in cash receipts.<ref>{{cite report |title=California Agricultural Statistics Review 2017-2018 |date=2018 |pages=4, 110 |url=https://www.cdfa.ca.gov/Statistics/PDFs/2017-18AgReport.pdf |access-date=December 1, 2019 |website=[[California Department of Food and Agriculture]]}}</ref>

Walnuts contribute a mean of {{convert|1.34|lb/acre|kg/ha|adj=pre| <chem>N2O-N</chem>}} emissions per year in Mediterranean agriculture systems.<ref name="Verhoeven-2017" />

===Wheat===
[[Wheat stripe rust]] is believed to have been present at or before the 1770s due to newspaper reports at the time, and due to the greater prevalence of stripe than [[leaf rust (disambiguation)|leaf]] or [[stem rust|stem]].<ref name="Kang-Chen-2017" />{{rp|page=3}} Hungerford (1923) and Hungerford & Owens (1923) found stripe on [[wheat]] here and almost all other [[western US|western states]].<ref name="Kang-Chen-2017" />{{rp|page=9}}

As first speculated by Tollenaar & Houston 1967,<ref name="1967-stripe">{{cite journal |year=1967 |issue=3 |publisher=[[Canadian Science Publishing]] |volume=45 |journal=[[Canadian Journal of Botany]] |issn=0008-4026 |last1=Tollenaar |first1=H. |last2=Houston |first2=Byron R. |title=A study on the epidemiology of stripe rust ''Puccinia striiformis'' West., in California |doi=10.1139/b67-028 |pages=291–307|bibcode=1967CaJB...45..291T }}</ref> in some years [[fungal plant disease|inoculum]] from the [[Sierra Nevadas]] initiates the state's epidemics.<ref name="Kang-Chen-2017" /> Wheat sown in the fall (autumn) in the valleys suffers from stripe rust carried from wild grasses in the mountains.<ref name="Kang-Chen-2017" /> This is not the only source however, as stripe will also [[overwinter]] in [[Sacramento Valley]] wheat [[cover crop|cover]].<ref name="Kang-Chen-2017" /> See {{section link||Stripe Rust}}.

===Wine===
{{excerpt|California wine}}

==Livestock==
===Red meat===
In 2022, California meat production exceeded 181 million pounds of beef, 49 million pounds of pork, and 3 million pounds of mutton.<ref>{{cite news |title=Pacific Region Livestock Slaughter |url=https://www.nass.usda.gov/Statistics_by_State/Hawaii/Publications/Livestock,_Poultry,_and_Dairy/Slaughter/2022/202206LVSKSGHT.pdf |access-date=22 February 2025 |agency=United States Department of Agriculture |date=June 2022}}</ref> [[Harris Ranch]] a ranch and [[feedlot]] operation is California's largest [[beef cattle|beef]] producer, producing {{convert|150|e6lb}} of [[beef]] per year in 2010.<ref name="abc">{{cite news |title = Harris Ranch markets farm-to-fork |first = Olivia |last = Munoz |work = San Jose Mercury-News |agency = Associated Press |url = http://www.mercurynews.com/breaking-news/ci_16248323 |date = October 4, 2010 }}</ref>

===Fowl===
In 2024, California's 8,864,000 egg-laying chickens produced 201 million eggs, 2.2% of the US total, while leading states Ohio and Iowa each produced over 1 billion eggs.<ref>{{cite news |title=Pacific Region Poultry |url=https://www.nass.usda.gov/Statistics_by_State/California/Publications/Livestock_Releases/Poultry/2024/202409RVPOUL.pdf |access-date=22 February 2025 |agency=United States Department of Agriculture |date=27 September 2024}}</ref>

The [[domestic fowl]] industry suffers from avian malaria.<ref name="relictum-CABI-2019-bundle">
*{{cite web |title=''Plasmodium relictum'' |website=[[Invasive Species Compendium]] |publisher=[[Centre for Agriculture and Bioscience International|CABI]] |date=December 2, 2019 |url=http://www.cabi.org/isc/datasheet/69051 |access-date=May 27, 2022}}
*{{cite journal |last=Herman |first=Carlton M. |title=Blood Parasites from California Ducks and Geese |journal=[[Journal of Parasitology]] |publisher=[[Allen Press]] |volume=37 |issue=3 |year=1951 |pages=280–282 |issn=0022-3395 |doi=10.2307/3273200 |jstor=3273200 |pmid=14851153}}
*{{cite journal |last1=Herman |first1=C. M. |last2=McClure |first2=H. E. |last3=Hammon |first3=W. McD. |last4=French |first4=E. M. |last5=Reeves |first5=W. C. |title=Studies on Avian Malaria in Vectors and Hosts of Encephalitis in Kern County, California {{endash}} I. Infections in Avian Hosts |journal=[[The American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene]] |publisher=[[American Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene]] |volume=3 |issue=4 |date=July 1, 1954 |issn=0002-9637 |doi=10.4269/ajtmh.1954.3.676 |pages=676–695 |pmid=13180827 |bibcode=1954AJTMH...3..676H |id=[[United States Geological Survey|USGS]] pub# [http://pubs.er.usgs.gov/publication/5220587 5220587]}}
*{{cite journal |last1=Reeves |first1=W. C. |last2=Hammon |first2=W. McD. |last3=Brookman |first3=B. |last4=Herold |first4=R. C. |last5=Rosen |first5=L. |title=Studies on Avian Malaria in Vectors and Hosts of Encephalitis in Kern County, California {{endash}} II. Infections in Mosquito Vectors |journal=[[The American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene]] |publisher=[[American Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene]] |volume=3 |issue=4 |date=July 1, 1954 |issn=0002-9637 |doi=10.4269/ajtmh.1954.3.696 |pages=696–703 |s2cid=34318268 |pmid=13180828}}
</ref><ref name="Atkinson-et-al-2009-bundle">
*{{cite web |access-date=June 27, 2022 |date=2022 |url=https://zoologix.com/avian/Datasheets/Malaria.html |website=Zoologix |title=Malaria (''Plasmodium'') PCR test}}
*{{cite book |date=January 13, 2009 |publication-place=[[Oxford, UK]] |publisher=[[Wiley-Blackwell]] |editor-last1=Atkinson |pages=xi+595 |editor-first1=Carter T. |editor-last2=Thomas |editor-first2=Nancy J. |editor-last3=Hunter |editor-first3=D. Bruce |title=Parasitic Diseases of Wild Birds |doi=10.1002/9780813804620 |isbn=978-0-8138-0462-0 |oclc=352832662 |s2cid=82770933 |id={{isbn |978-0-8138-2081-1}}. {{isbn |978-0-8138-0457-6}} |url=http://www.gbv.de/dms/bowker/toc/9780813820811.pdf}}{{rp|page=140}}
*{{cite web |access-date=June 27, 2022 |date=2022 |url=https://zoologix.com/avian/index.htm |website=Zoologix |title=Zoologix PCR testing for birds, poultry, pigs and livestock}}
</ref> {{visible anchor|Chickens|Gallus gallus|Gallus domesticus|text=[[Chicken]]s}} (''Gallus gallus''/''G. domesticus'') and {{visible anchor|Ducks|Anas platyrhynchos domesticus|Anas platyrhynchos|text=[[domestic duck|ducks]]}} (''Anas platyrhynchos domesticus'') are commonly infected, as well as various wild birds.<ref name="relictum-CABI-2019-bundle" /> Testing has been done since the Herman group made the first reports of ''P. relictum'' infection, in Herman 1951, Herman ''et al.'', 1954, and Reeves ''et al.'', 1954.<ref name="relictum-CABI-2019-bundle" /> (See {{section link||Avian malaria}} and ''{{section link||Plasmodium relictum}}'' for the parasite and [[vector (epidemiology)|vector]]s, and for testing.)

{{anchor|Honeybee}}

==Regions==
===Central Valley===
{{further|Central Valley (California)|l1=Central Valley}}
The Central Valley of California is one of the world's most productive agricultural regions.<ref name="every">{{cite news |first=Mark |last=Bittman |title=Everyone Eats There |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2012/10/14/magazine/californias-central-valley-land-of-a-billion-vegetables.html?hp |newspaper=[[The New York Times]] |date=October 10, 2012 |access-date=October 10, 2012 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121013012804/http://www.nytimes.com/2012/10/14/magazine/californias-central-valley-land-of-a-billion-vegetables.html?hp |archive-date=October 13, 2012}}</ref> More than 230 crops are grown there.<ref name=every/> On less than one percent of the total farmland in the United States, the Central Valley produces eight percent of the nation's agricultural output by value: US$43.5 billion in 2013.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.cdfa.ca.gov/statistics/pdfs/2013/finaldraft2012-2013.pdf |title=Agricultural Statistics Review, 2012-2013 |access-date=March 29, 2016 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160619060334/https://www.cdfa.ca.gov/Statistics/PDFs/2013/FinalDraft2012-2013.pdf |archive-date=June 19, 2016}}</ref> The top four counties in agricultural sales (2007 data) ''in the U.S.'' are in California's Central Valley: Fresno ($3.731 billion), Tulare ($3.335 billion), Kern ($3.204 billion), and Merced ($2.330 billion).<ref name=overview>{{cite web |url=http://www.library.ca.gov/crb/97/09/ |title=A Statistical Tour of California's Great Central Valley |publisher=California State Library |work=California Research Bureau |access-date=July 27, 2009 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090503170012/http://www.library.ca.gov/CRB/97/09/ |archive-date=May 3, 2009 |df=mdy-all}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |first=Timothy S. |last=Parker |url=http://www.ers.usda.gov/data-products/state-fact-sheets/state-data.aspx?StateFIPS=00#.VBmjifldXzg |title=United States Fact Sheet: US agriculture income population food education employment unemployment federal funds farms top commodities exports counties financial indicators poverty food security farm income Rural Nonmetro Urban Metropolitan America USDA organic Census of Agriculture |publisher=Ers.usda.gov |date=October 27, 2011 |access-date=November 13, 2011 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120626232232/http://www.ers.usda.gov/data-products/state-fact-sheets/state-data.aspx?StateFIPS=00#.VBmjifldXzg |archive-date=June 26, 2012}}</ref>

Its agricultural productivity relies on irrigation both from surface water diversions and from groundwater pumping (wells). About one-sixth of the irrigated land in the U.S. is in the Central Valley.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Reilly |first=Thomas E. |title=Ground-Water Availability in the United States: U.S. Geological Survey Circular 1323 |page=84 |publisher=U.S. Geological Survey |location=Denver, CO |year=2008 |isbn=978-1-4113-2183-0}}</ref> [[Central Valley groundwater pollution]] is an ongoing environmental issue in the area.

There are 6,000 [[almond]] growers who produced more than 1.8 million [[tonne]]s in 2013, about 60 percent of the world's supply.<ref>{{Cite news |title=California's Central Valley. Where the Mountains Are Almonds |url=https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=950DE7DD1639F935A3575AC0A9669C8B63&n=Top%2FReference%2FTimes%20Topics%2FSubjects%2FC%2FCooking%20and%20Cookbooks |newspaper=[[The New York Times]] |quote=The state's 6,000 growers produce more than 600 million pounds a year, more than 70 percent of the world's supply and virtually 100 percent of domestic production. |date=September 6, 2000 |access-date=December 16, 2008 |first=Todd S. |last=Purdum}}</ref><ref name=FAOSTAT>{{cite web |url=http://faostat3.fao.org/browse/Q/QC/E |publisher=Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Statistics Division, FAOSTAT |title=Production/Crops for almonds with shell |format=database |date=2013 |access-date=December 22, 2015 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161122053717/http://faostat3.fao.org/browse/Q/QC/E |archive-date=November 22, 2016}}</ref>

Parts of the Valley are [[agricultural quarantine|quarantine]] {{as of|2022|07|lc=yes}} due to an ongoing [[extirpation|pest eradication]].<ref name="Find-Emerg-bundle" /><ref name="Biz-J" /> The Peach Fruit Fly was found in {{visible anchor|Chowchilla|[[Chowchilla, California|Chowchilla, Madera County]]}} and this is a threat not only here, but could spread to the entire state, and to a lesser degree the entire country and other locations around the world.<ref name="Find-Emerg-bundle" /><ref name="Biz-J" /> See {{section link||Peach Fruit Fly}}.

===Salinas Valley===
{{further|Salinas Valley}}
The Salinas Valley, located within [[Monterey County]], is one of the most productive agricultural regions in California. Monterey County grows over 50% of the national production for leaf lettuce, head lettuce, and celery. It also produces significant percentages of the country's broccoli, spinach, cauliflower, and strawberries.<ref>{{cite web |title=Facts, Figures & FAQs |url=http://montereycfb.com/index.php?page=facts-figures-faqs |website=Monterey County Farm Bureau |access-date=October 8, 2019 |ref=mcfb-facts |archive-date=October 20, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191020205948/http://montereycfb.com/index.php?page=facts-figures-faqs |url-status=dead }}</ref> The area is also a significant producer of organic produce, with 68,868 acres in cultivation and annual sales of $412,347,000.

==Organic farming==
[[File:Organic-vegetable-cultivation.jpeg|thumb|Organic cultivation of mixed vegetables in [[Capay, California]]]]
California has more [[Organic certification|certified organic]] farms than any other state. In 2016, more than a million acres in the state were certified organic.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Walker |first1=Kristi |last2=Bialik |first2=Kristen |title=Organic farming is on the rise in the U.S. |url=https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2019/01/10/organic-farming-is-on-the-rise-in-the-u-s/ |access-date=October 13, 2019 |agency=Pew Research Center |publisher=Pew Charitable Trusts |date=January 10, 2019}}</ref> CA grows 90% or more of the U.S. production of Organic almonds, artichokes, avocados, broccoli, cauliflower, celery, dates, figs, grapes, strawberries, lemons, lettuce, plums, and walnuts.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Klonsky |first1=Karen |title=A Look at California's Organic Agriculture Production |url=https://www.cdfa.ca.gov/is/pdfs/A_Look_at_California's_Organic_Agriculture_Production.pdf |publisher=University of California Giannini Foundation of Agricultural Economics |access-date=October 13, 2019}}</ref>

There are two primary laws that regulate organic production: at a federal level, the [[Organic Foods Production Act of 1990]] and at a state level, the California Organic Food and Farming Act of 2016. Both laws lay out standards for production, processing, handling and retailing that must be followed in order to label a product as "organic". The USDA, California Organic Products Advisory Committee, and the California County Agricultural Commissioners monitor and ensure these standards are followed by administering enforcement actions for any violations.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.cdfa.ca.gov/ |title=California Department of Food and Agriculture |website=www.cdfa.ca.gov |access-date=November 3, 2019}}</ref>

Any agricultural operation selling more than $5,000 in products per year is required to acquire organic certification, if they seek to sell their products under the organic label. Multiple organizations are accredited to certify operations organic.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.cdfa.ca.gov/is/docs/CertifiersList.pdf |title=United States Department of Agriculture Accredited Certifying Agents Registered with the State Organic Program |website=California Department of Food and Agriculture: State Organic Program}}</ref>

==Environmental and natural resources==
===Water use===
The largest overall [[Water in California|water users in California]] are the environment, agriculture and urban/ municipal uses.<ref name="Public Policy Institute of California">{{Cite web |url=https://www.ppic.org/publication/water-use-in-california/ |title=Water Use in California |website=Public Policy Institute of California |language=en-US |access-date=October 22, 2019}}</ref> In an average year, about 40% of [[Water in California|California's water consumption]], or approximately {{convert|34.1|e6acre-foot|e6m3|abbr=off}}, is [[farm water|used for agricultural purposes]]. However, the exact proportion of total water usage for agriculture varies widely between 'wet' and 'dry' years. In wet years, agriculture is responsible for closer to 30% of total water consumption and in dry years closer to 60%.<ref name="Public Policy Institute of California" /> Water for agriculture is used to irrigate more than {{convert|9|e6acre|abbr=off}} of cropland annually.<ref name="watercagov-2">{{Cite web |url=http://water.ca.gov/Water-Basics/Agriculture |title=Agriculture |website=water.ca.gov |language=en |access-date=October 22, 2019}}</ref>

Water for agriculture comes from two primary sources: [[surface water]] and [[groundwater]]. Surface waters include natural bodies of water along with a network of human-built [[reservoir]]s with aqueducts and canals that carry water from the source to the agricultural users.<ref name="watercagov-2" /> Groundwater aquifers range in depth and accessibility across the state, and historically have been used to supplement surface water supplies in dry years.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.ppic.org/publication/groundwater-in-california/ |title=Groundwater in California |website=Public Policy Institute of California |language=en-US |access-date=October 22, 2019}}</ref>

California is one of the top five states in water use for livestock. Water withdrawals for livestock use in California were {{convert|101-250|e6USgal|L}}/day in 2010.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://water.usgs.gov/watuse/wulv.html |title=USGS: Livestock Water Use in the United States |website=water.usgs.gov |language=en |access-date=March 4, 2018}}</ref>

Saudi Arabian companies and individuals have bought land here and in [[Arizona]] to benefit from subsidized water.<ref name="Daniels-2016" /> This has produced criticism because the [[hay]] grown is [[Saudi-US trade|exported to Saudi Arabia]].<ref name="Daniels-2016">{{cite web |access-date=October 17, 2022 |year=2016 |website=[[CNBC]] |last=Daniels |first=Jeff |url=https://www.cnbc.com/2016/01/15/saudi-arabia-buying-up-farmland-in-us-southwest.html |title=Saudi Arabia buying up farmland in US Southwest}}</ref> Around 15% of overall alflafa production goes to exports.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Markham |first=Lauren |date=2019-03-25 |title=Who keeps buying California's scarce water? Saudi Arabia |url=https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2019/mar/25/california-water-drought-scarce-saudi-arabia |access-date=2024-01-15 |work=The Guardian |language=en-GB |issn=0261-3077}}</ref>

===Water quality===
Agricultural impacts on water quality concentrate around concerns of the following contaminants: nutrients, pesticides, salts, pollutants, sediment, pathogens, and heavy metals.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.waterboards.ca.gov/water_issues/programs/agriculture/ |title=Agriculture {{!}} California State Water Resources Control Board |website=www.waterboards.ca.gov |access-date=November 15, 2019}}</ref> These contaminants enter water bodies through above-ground [[surface runoff]] of rainwater or excess irrigation water, or percolating through the soil and leaching into groundwater. Water quality concerns affect most regions of the state and tend to be exacerbated during periods of drought.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.ppic.org/publication/californias-water-quality-challenges/ |title=California's Water Quality Challenges |last=Chappelle |first=Caitrin |date=October 2015 |website=Public Policy Institute of California |access-date=November 8, 2019}}</ref>

At present, all irrigated agricultural operations in the State are required to participate in the Irrigated Lands Regulatory Program.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.waterboards.ca.gov/centralvalley/water_issues/irrigated_lands/ |title=Irrigated Lands Regulatory Program {{!}} Central Valley Regional Water Quality Control Board |website=www.waterboards.ca.gov |access-date=November 15, 2019}}</ref> The regulatory program began after the California Legislature passed Senate Bill 390 (SB390) in 1990, that eliminated a blanket waiver for agricultural operations to discharge wastewater without any specific environmental standards.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.waterboards.ca.gov/centralvalley/water_issues/irrigated_lands/ilrp_faq.pdf |title=Irrigated Lands Regulatory Program Frequently Asked Questions |date=November 2016 |website=www.waterboards.ca.gov/centralvalley |access-date=November 14, 2019}}</ref>

===Water supply===
A major source for Southern California's water supply, both agricultural and urban, is the [[Colorado River]] from which an aqueduct has been built to transport the water from the river to [[Riverside, California|Riverside]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Cadiz Water Project {{!}} Where Does California's Water Come From? |date=December 2017 |url=https://www.cadizwaterproject.com/where-does-californias-water-come-from/ |access-date=May 27, 2022 |language=en-US}}</ref> Colorado River irrigation is essential for agriculture to the Salton Sea Basin, which supports key agriculturally productive areas such as the Imperial Valley.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Bradley |first1=T. |last2=Ajami |first2=H. |last3=Porter |first3=W. |date=April 22, 2022 |title=Ecological transitions at the Salton Sea: Past, present and future |url=http://calag.ucanr.edu/Archive/?article=ca.2022a0004 |journal=California Agriculture |language=English |volume=76 |issue=1 |pages=8–15 |doi=10.3733/ca.2022a0004 |s2cid=248363086 |issn=0008-0845|doi-access=free }}</ref> Another aspect of the agricultural water supply in California is the transfer of water that takes place from northern to southern California. In northern California, the [[Shasta Dam]] contains the flow of the [[Sacramento River]], preserving water for California's use, and pumping stations in the [[Sacramento–San Joaquin River Delta|California Delta]] extract water transferring that water across the [[San Joaquin Valley]] and southward.<ref>{{Cite web |last=info@sustainablefoodtrust.org |first=Sustainable Food Trust- |title=Sustainable Food Trust |url=https://sustainablefoodtrust.org:443/articles/california-agriculture-and-water-farm-sustainably-or-go-bust/ |access-date=May 27, 2022 |website=Sustainable Food Trust |date=February 4, 2022 |language=en}}</ref> A key component to the distribution of the water supply are the irrigation districts and water agencies who are responsible for delegating water as to meet the demand of those within the area as well as clarify and legal arbitration as to water rights.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Agriculture |url=https://water.ca.gov/Water-Basics/Agriculture |access-date=May 27, 2022 |website=water.ca.gov |language=en}}</ref>

The agency tasked with overseeing the state's water supply and any projects associated with the upkeep of the supply is the [[California Department of Water Resources]] (CDWR).<ref>{{Cite web |title=State Agencies in California Involved in Water Issues |url=https://www.watereducation.org/state-agencies-california-involved-water-issues |access-date=May 27, 2022 |website=Water Education Foundation |date=June 22, 2020 |language=en}}</ref> As part of the 2019-2020 California Spending Plan, the CDWR received $2.336 billion with $833 million going towards projects overseen by the [[California Natural Resources Agency]] and $1.503 billion going towards the control board supervised by the [[California Environmental Protection Agency]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=The 2019-20 Budget: California Spending Plan—Resources and Environmental Protection |url=https://lao.ca.gov/Publications/Report/4103#:~:text=The%20budget%20provides%20$7.8%20million%20from%20the%20General,(SWRCB)%20to%20begin%20implementing%20recent%20water%20conservation%20legislation. |access-date=May 27, 2022 |website=lao.ca.gov}}</ref> One of the CDWR's major projects is the [[California State Water Project|State Water Project]] (SWP) which distributes 34% of the water that flows through its various channels.<ref name="watercagov">{{Cite web |title=State Water Project |url=https://water.ca.gov/Programs/State-Water-Project |access-date=May 27, 2022 |website=water.ca.gov |language=en}}</ref> The SWP also is one of the largest suppliers of [[Hydroelectricity|hydroelectric power]] in the state.<ref name="watercagov" />

The invasive [[quagga mussel|quagga-]] and [[zebra mussel|zebra-]]{{zero width space}}mussels reached the state in about 2006 and threaten the already limited supply of farm water.<ref name="Schoch-2007">{{cite web |last=Schoch |first=Deborah |title=Tough mussel pain, no easy remedy |website=[[Los Angeles Times]] |date=December 31, 2007 |url=http://www.latimes.com/local/la-me-mussels31dec31-story.html |access-date=May 2, 2022}}</ref> The mussels have continued to spread and present an ever-expanding threat to pipelines.<ref name="Ca-quagga-zebra">{{cite web |title=New Quagga / Zebra Mussel Discoveries in California |website=[[California Department of Fish and Wildlife]] |date=December 30, 2020 |url=http://wildlife.ca.gov/Conservation/Invasives/New-Infestations |access-date=May 2, 2022}}</ref>

===Air pollution===
In 2014, California agriculture soils contributed to 51% of statewide greenhouse gas emissions.<ref name="Verhoeven-2017"/> California's Mediterranean climate supports irrigation events such as nitrification which encourage nitrous oxide production. Mean nitrous oxide emissions (the biggest contributor to ozone depletion of all the major agricultural greenhouse gases) have been reported to be "four times higher in irrigated compared to rain-fed systems".<ref name="Verhoeven-2017"/> Another factor which frequently contributes to increased <chem>N2O</chem> emissions are warm soil temperatures (a common occurrence in California).<ref name="Verhoeven-2017"/>

==History==
{{Main|History of agriculture in California}}
===Pre-1850===
Some California hunter-gatherer tribes, including the [[Owens Valley Paiute]], developed irrigation.<ref>{{cite book |first1=Robert |last1=Bettinger |editor1-last=Kennett |editor1-first=Douglas |editor2-last=Winterhalder |editor2-first=Bruce |title=Behavioral Ecology and the Transition to Agriculture |chapter=Agriculture, Archaeology, and Human Behavioral Ecology |date=December 3, 2005 |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=0520246470 |page=320 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wdGm0BFqtiMC&q=Owens+Valley+Paiute&pg=PR7 |access-date=October 7, 2019}}</ref> Native Californians were skilled at gathering materials from plants at all times of the year, allowing the consistent gathering of materials from any and all [[List of California native plants|local plants]]. Depending on when various plants—including [[Succulent plant|succulents]], [[flower]]s, and trees—bloomed or became ripe, different aspects of the plant could be accessed or harvested by Native California peoples.<ref name="Anderson-2005">{{Cite book |last=Anderson |first=Kat |title=Tending the wild: Native American knowledge and the management of California's natural resources |date=2005 |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=978-0-520-93310-1 |location=Berkeley |oclc=62175673}}</ref>

[[File:Basket cap, maker unknown, Yurok Hupa Karuk - Mount Shasta Sisson Museum - DSC02800.JPG|thumb|A basket cap made by the Karuk, Yurok, or Hupa peoples, using stems of plants that would have been harvested as a result of [[cultural burning]].]]

Black oak acorn harvests were increased by [[Native American use of fire in ecosystems|cultural burning]], which stimulated acorn growth and increased biodiversity in the area.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Long |first1=Jonathan W. |last2=Goode |first2=Ron W. |last3=Gutteriez |first3=Raymond J. |last4=Lackey |first4=Jessica J. |last5=Anderson |first5=M. Kat |date=September 15, 2017 |title=Managing California Black Oak for Tribal Ecocultural Restoration |journal=Journal of Forestry |volume=115 |issue=5 |pages=426–434 |doi=10.5849/jof.16-033 |issn=0022-1201|doi-access=free }}</ref> [[Cultural burning]] was commonly practiced by throughout California to maintain a healthy landscape that produced quality resources, as the [[Karuk]], [[Yurok]], [[Hupa]] peoples all regularly burned areas of [[bear grass]] and [[California hazelnut]] and to encourage the growth of stronger stems that could be used for [[Basket weaving|basketry]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Marks-Block |first1=Tony |last2=Lake |first2=Frank K. |last3=Bliege Bird |first3=Rebecca |last4=Curran |first4=Lisa M. |date=February 19, 2021 |title=Revitalized Karuk and Yurok cultural burning to enhance California hazelnut for basketweaving in northwestern California, USA |journal=Fire Ecology |volume=17 |issue=1 |pages=6 |doi=10.1186/s42408-021-00092-6 |bibcode=2021FiEco..17a...6M |s2cid=231971687 |issn=1933-9747 |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Hunter |first=John |date=1988 |title=Prescribed burning for cultural resources |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/273121240 |journal=Fire Management Notes |volume=49 |pages=8–9 |via=ResearchGate}}</ref>

In the late 1700s, Franciscan missionaries established [[Spanish missions in California]]. Like earlier Spanish missions established in [[Baja California]], these missions were surrounded by agricultural land, growing crops from Europe and the Americas, and raising animals originating from Europe. Indigenous workers from Baja California made up a large part of the initial labor force on California missions.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Street |first1=Richard |title=First Farmworkers, First Braceros: Baja California Field Hands and the Origins of Farm Labor Importation in California Agriculture, 1769-1790 |journal=California History |date=Winter 1996–1997 |volume=75 |issue=4 |pages=306–321 |jstor=25177614 |url=https://www.sscnet.ucla.edu/comm/steen/cogweb/Chumash/Street.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20021111032418/http://www.sscnet.ucla.edu/comm/steen/cogweb/Chumash/Street.html |archive-date=November 11, 2002 |access-date=October 1, 2019}}</ref> In the early 1800s, this flow of laborers from Baja California had largely stopped, and the missions relied on converts from local tribes. By 1806, over 20,000 [[Mission Indians]] were "attached" to the California missions. As missions were expected to become largely self-sufficient, farming was a critically important [[Spanish missions in California#Mission industries|Mission industry]]. 
[[George Vancouver]] visited [[Mission San Buenaventura]] in 1793 and noted the wide variety of crops grown: apples, pears, plums, figs, oranges, grapes, peaches, pomegranates, plantain, banana, coconut, sugar cane, indigo, various herbs, and prickly pear.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Ruther |first1=Walter |title=The Citrus Industry: History, world distribution, botany, and varieties |date=1967 |publisher=University of California, Division of Agricultural Sciences |page=25}}</ref> 
Livestock was raised for meat, wool, leather, and tallow, and for cultivating the land. In 1832, at the height of their prosperity, the missions collectively owned over 150,000 cattle and over 120,000 sheep. They also raised horses, goats, and pigs.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Krell |first1=Dorothy |title=The California Missions: A Pictorial History |date=December 1996 |publisher=Sunset Publishing Corporation |location=Menlo Park, California |isbn=9780376051721 |page=316}}</ref>

The Spanish (1784–1810) and Mexican (1819–1846) governments made a large number of land grants to private individuals from 1785 to 1846. These [[Ranchos of California|ranchos]] included land taken from the missions following government-imposed [[Mexican secularization act of 1833|secularization]] in 1833, after which the missions' productivity declined significantly. The ranchos were focused on cattle, and [[California hide trade|hides and tallow]] were their main products. There was no market for large quantities of beef (before refrigeration and railroads) until the [[California Gold Rush]].

===1850–1900===
Rapid population growth drove an increase in importation of agricultural products, and, within a few years, a massive growth in in-state agriculture. In the first years of the gold rush, the state relied on agricultural imports arriving by ship, from Australia, Chile, and Hawaii. During these years, there was rapid growth in vegetable farming for local markets. This was followed by an expansion of grain farming.<ref name="Gerber-origins">{{cite journal |last1=Gerber |first1=Jim |title=The Gold Rush origins of California's wheat economy |journal=América Latina en la historia económica |date=July 2010 |volume=34 |url=https://www.academia.edu/3526628 |access-date=October 21, 2019}}</ref> A shift in the economic dominance of grain farming over cattle raising was marked by the passage of the California "No-Fence Law" of 1874. This repealed the Trespass Act of 1850, which had required farmers to protect their planted fields from free-ranging cattle. The repeal of the Trespass Act required that ranchers fence stock in, rather than farmers fencing cattle out. The ranchers were faced with either the high expense of fencing large grazing tracts or selling their cattle at ruinous prices.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Ludeke |first=John |title=The No Fence Law of 1874: Victory for San Joaquin Valley Farmers |journal=California History |volume=59 |issue=2 |year=1980 |pages=98–115 |doi=10.2307/25157972 |jstor=25157972}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |url=https://www.sandiegohistory.org/journal/65january/cattle.htm |title=Decimation of the Herds, 1870–1912 |journal=San Diego History Journal |date=January 1965}}</ref> 

Irrigation was almost nonexistent in California in 1850, but by 1899, 12 percent of the state's improved farmland was irrigated.<ref name="Olmstead-history">{{cite web |last1=Olmstead |first1=Alan |last2=Rhode |first2=Paul |title=A History of California Agriculture |url=https://s.giannini.ucop.edu/uploads/giannini_public/19/41/194166a6-cfde-4013-ae55-3e8df86d44d0/a_history_of_california_agriculture.pdf |website=Giannini Foundation of Agricultural Economics |publisher=University of California |access-date=October 30, 2019}}</ref>

[[Luther Burbank]] moved to [[Santa Rosa, California]] in 1875, and developed numerous commercially successful varieties of plants over the next 50 years.

===1900–1950===
The 1902 [[Newlands Reclamation Act]] funded irrigation projects on arid lands in 20 states including California.

In 1905, the California legislature passed the University Farm Bill, which called for the establishment of a farm school for the University of California (at the time, [[University of California, Berkeley|Berkeley]] was the sole campus of the university).<ref name=Dingemans>{{cite book |last=Dubgenans |first=Dennis |title=University of California, Davis |year=2013 |publisher=Arcadia |location=Charleston |isbn=978-0-7385-9699-0 |page=7}}</ref> The commission took a year to select a site for the campus, a tiny town then known as Davisville.<ref name=Dingemans/> [[UC Davis]] opened its doors as the "University Farm" to 40 degree students (all male) from UC Berkeley in January 1909.

In 1919, the [[California Department of Food and Agriculture]] was established. The department covers state food safety, state protection from invasive species, and promoting the state's agricultural industry.

The [[Dust Bowl]] of the 1930s drove many people from the American prairie, and a significant number of these [[economic migrant]]s relocated to California. Poor migrants from Oklahoma and nearby states were sometimes referred to as [[Okie]]s, generally a pejorative term. 
In 1933, the state saw a number of [[California agricultural strikes of 1933|agricultural labor strikes]], with the largest actions against cotton growers. Cherry, grape, peach, pear, sugar beet, and tomato workers were also involved.

In 1942, the United States began the [[Bracero program]]. Lasting until 1964, this agreement established decent living conditions and a minimum wage for Mexican workers in the United States.

===1950–2000===
In 1965, the [[Williamson Act]] became law, providing property tax relief to owners of California farmland and open-space land in exchange for agreement that the land will not be developed.

The 1960s and 1970s saw major [[farm worker]] strikes including the 1965 [[Delano grape strike]] and the 1970 [[Salad Bowl strike]]. In 1975, the [[California Agricultural Labor Relations Act of 1975]] was enacted,<ref name="GovSigns">"Governor Signs Historic Farm Labor Legislation." ''Los Angeles Times.'' June 5, 1975.</ref> establishing the right to [[collective bargaining]] for [[farmworker]]s in California, a first in U.S. history.<ref name="Hurt">Hurt, R. Douglas. ''American Agriculture: A Brief History.'' Lafayette, Ind.: Purdue University Press, 2002. {{ISBN|1-55753-281-8}}</ref> Individuals with prominent roles in farm worker organizing in this period include [[Cesar Chavez]], [[Dolores Huerta]], [[Larry Itliong]], and [[Philip Vera Cruz]].

Through 1995 there were 50,000 [[Mixtec people|Mixtecs]] every year in California agriculture.<ref name="Mix-1995">{{cite journal |access-date=August 28, 2022 |year=1995 |title=Mixtec Farm Workers |journal=Migration Dialogue |publisher=Regents of the [[University of California, Davis]] |volume=1 |number=4 |url=https://migration.ucdavis.edu/rmn/more.php?id=71}}</ref> They were about 70% of the 10,000 agricultural laborers in [[San Diego County]], and had been spreading northwards to also work in [[Oxnard]], [[Santa Maria, California|Santa Maria]] and [[Madera County, California|Madera County]], and even into [[Oregon]] and [[Washington (state)|Washington]].<ref name="Mix-1995" /> They were usually not the only indigenous Mexican ethnic groups {{endash}} [[Zapotec people|Zapotecs]] and [[Mayan people|Mayans]] were also usually working the same jobs.<ref name="Mix-1995" /> 

===2001–present===
In the 2000s and 2010s, Californians voted for propositions which established new protections for farm animals. [[2008 California Proposition 2]] and [[2018 California Proposition 12]] both established minimum requirements for farming egg-laying hens, breeding pigs, and calves raised for veal. 
Few veal and pig factory farm operations exist in California, so these propositions mostly affect farmers who raise California's 15 million egg-laying hens.<ref name=CarlaHall>{{cite news |last=Hall |first=Carla |title=Egg-laying hens in California win another court battle |url=http://www.latimes.com/opinion/opinion-la/la-ol-egg-hens-california-court-20150204-story.html |date=February 4, 2015 |newspaper=[[Los Angeles Times]] |access-date=February 8, 2015}}</ref>

==Agricultural crime==
[[California nut crimes]] have involved the theft of millions of dollars of nuts (almonds, pistachios, cashews and pecans) in multiple incidents since 2013.<ref name="AP-nuts">{{Cite news |agency=Associated Press |date=April 14, 2016 |title=California cracking down as crime rings steal truckloads of nuts worth millions |language=en-GB |work=The Guardian |url=https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2016/apr/14/california-nut-thefts-agriculture-shipments-almonds |access-date=July 22, 2020 |issn=0261-3077}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Daniels |first=Jeff |date=December 1, 2015 |title=Thieves are ravaging California's nut farms |url=https://www.cnbc.com/2015/12/01/thieves-are-ravaging-californias-nut-farms.html |access-date=July 22, 2020 |website=CNBC |language=en}}</ref>

Water theft for agriculture has been an issue in times of drought, with the State assessing fines up to $1.5 million.<ref>{{cite news |title=California drought: farmers hit with record $1.5M fine for allegedly stealing water |url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/california-drought-farmers-hit-with-record-1-5m-fine-for-allegedly-stealing-water-1.3161349 |access-date=July 22, 2020 |agency=Associated Press |publisher=CBC |date=July 21, 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Weiser |first1=Matt |title=California drought puts spotlight on water theft |url=https://www.sacbee.com/news/politics-government/article2593633.html |access-date=July 22, 2020 |work=[[Sacramento Bee]] |date=October 8, 2014}}</ref>

==Pests==
Despite its expansive geography, some pests are so severe, so [[polyphagous]], and/or so wide-ranging as to be economically significant to the entire state.

[[File:Amyelois transitella larva head.jpg|frameless|right | alt=Larva/worm]]
The {{visible anchor|Navel orangeworm|Amyelois transitella|text=[[Navel orangeworm]]}} (''Amyelois transitella'') first entered from [[Arizona]] in 1942 and quickly began attacking walnut, date palm, and fig – despite its [[common name]] it is only a minor pest of citrus.<ref name="Wilson-et-al-2020">{{cite journal |last1=Wilson |first1=Houston |last2=Burks |first2=Charles S. |last3=Reger |first3=Joshua E. |last4=Wenger |first4=Jacob A. |editor-last=Tindall |editor-first=Kelly |title=Biology and Management of Navel Orangeworm (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae) in California |journal=[[Journal of Integrated Pest Management]] |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |volume=11 |issue=1 |date=January 1, 2020 |issn=2155-7470 |doi=10.1093/jipm/pmaa025 |pages=1–15|doi-access=free }}</ref> (See {{section link||Walnuts}}, {{section link||Dates}}, and {{section link||Figs}}. In the decades since it has become a notorious pest of almond, pistachio,<ref name="Wilson-et-al-2020" /><ref name="Gross-et-al-2014">{{cite book |last1=Gross |first1=Aaron |last2=Coats |first2=Joel R. |last3=Duke |first3=Stephen O. |last4=Seiber |first4=James N. |publisher=Division of Agrochemicals [[American Chemical Society]] |title=Biopesticides: State of the Art and Future Opportunities |publication-place=[[Washington, DC]] USA |date=2014 |isbn=978-0-8412-2998-3 |oclc=894525618 |id={{isbn |978-0-8412-2999-0}}<!-- book has two --> |pmid=<!-- not the journal --> |doi=10.1021/bk-2014-1172 |url=https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/bk-2014-1172}}</ref> and pomegranate and remains problematic for walnut<ref name="Gross-et-al-2014" /> and fig<ref name="Gross-et-al-2014" /><ref name="Burks-Brandl-2004">{{cite journal |last1=Burks |first1=Charles S. |last2=Brandl |first2=David G. |title=Seasonal abundance of the navel orangeworm, ''Amyelois transitella'', in figs and the effect of peripheral aerosol dispensers on sexual communication |journal=[[Journal of Insect Science (Entomological Society of America)|Journal of Insect Science]] |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |volume=4 |issue=1 |year=2004 |issn=1536-2442 |doi=10.1093/jis/4.1.40 |pages=1–8 |pmid=15861255 |pmc=1081560}}</ref> as well.<ref name="Gross-et-al-2014" /> (See {{section link||Almonds}}, {{section link||Pistachios}}, and {{section link||Pomegranates}}.) First flight of NOW begins around April 17 and ends around May 29, and third flight is about August 8 to September 12.<ref name="Gross-et-al-2014" /><ref name="Burks-Brandl-2004" /> Second flight is not as much of a concern.<ref name="Gross-et-al-2014" /><ref name="Burks-Brandl-2004" />

[[File:(0998) Epiphyas postvittana (36538746973).jpg|frameless|right | alt=Adult]]
The {{visible anchor|Light Brown Apple Moth|Light brown apple moth|Epiphyas postvittana|text=[[light brown apple moth]]}} (''Epiphyas postvittana'', often abbreviated to LBAM) is a leafroller moth belonging to the lepidopteran family Tortricidae.<ref name="Suckling-Brockerhoff-2010" /> Despite its [[common name]] it is a pest of a [[polyphagy|wide range of crops]], not just apples,<ref name="Suckling-Brockerhoff-2010" /><ref name=LBAM>{{cite journal |year=2022 |first4=Nan |first3=Frank |first2=Daniel |first1=James |last4=Wishner |last3=Zalom |last2=Harder |last1=Carey |publisher=[[John Wiley & Sons Inc.]] |title=Failure by Design: Lessons from the recently rescinded light brown apple moth (''Epiphyas postvittana'') eradication program in California |journal=[[Pest Management Science]] |volume=79 |issue=3 |pages=915–921 |doi=10.1002/ps.7246 |pmid=36268596 |pmc=10100390 |s2cid=253044874}}</ref> see {{section link||Apple}}, {{section link||Grape}}, and others. The moth was confirmed to be present in California in 2007, and spraying programs in 2007–2008 lead to the [[Light brown apple moth controversy]].<ref name="Suckling-Brockerhoff-2010">{{cite journal |last1=Suckling |first1=D.M. |last2=Brockerhoff |first2=E.G. |title=Invasion Biology, Ecology, and Management of the Light Brown Apple Moth (Tortricidae) |journal=[[Annual Review of Entomology]] |publisher=[[Annual Reviews (publisher)|Annual Reviews]] |volume=55 |issue=1 |year=2010 |issn=0066-4170 |doi=10.1146/annurev-ento-112408-085311 |pages=285–306 |s2cid=36541192 |pmid=19728834}}</ref><ref name="Walker-et-al-2017">{{cite journal |last1=Walker |first1=James T.S. |last2=Suckling |first2=David Maxwell |last3=Wearing |first3=C. Howard |title=Past, Present, and Future of Integrated Control of Apple Pests: The New Zealand Experience |journal=[[Annual Review of Entomology]] |publisher=[[Annual Reviews (publisher)|Annual Reviews]] |volume=62 |issue=1 |date=January 31, 2017 |issn=0066-4170 |doi=10.1146/annurev-ento-031616-035626 |pages=231–248 |pmid=28141966}}</ref>{{rp|page=233}} Tavener ''et al.'', 2011 finds [[novaluron]] works well but only when carried by [[horticultural oil|horticultural mineral oil]].<ref name="Dhadialla-2012">{{cite book |editor-last=Dhadialla |editor-first=Tarlochan |title=Insect growth disruptors |publisher=[[Academic Press]] |publication-place=[[Amsterdam]] |year=2012 |isbn=978-0-12-391500-9 |oclc=820839000 |language=en |pages=x+531 |series=Advances in Insect Physiology |number=43}} {{ISBN|978-0-12-394412-2}}.</ref>{{rp|page=56}}<ref name="Taverner-et-al-2011">{{cite journal |last1=Taverner |first1=Peter D. |last2=Sutton |first2=Clay |last3=Cunningham |first3=Nancy M. |last4=Dyson |first4=Chris |last5=Lucas |first5=Nola |last6=Myers |first6=Scott W. |title=Efficacy of Several Insecticides Alone and With Horticultural Mineral Oils on Light Brown Apple Moth (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae) Eggs |journal=[[Journal of Economic Entomology]] |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |volume=104 |issue=1 |date=February 1, 2011 |issn=0022-0493 |doi=10.1603/ec10248 |pages=220–224 |pmid=21404861 |s2cid=42313979}}</ref> Hosts include strawberry.<ref name="cplr">{{Cite web |access-date=2023-03-06 |title=Agriculture |website=[[UC Statewide IPM Program]] |url=https://ipm.ucanr.edu/agriculture/strawberry/leafrollers/}}</ref>

[[File:Citrus psyllid, u, larvae, side2, ft detrick 2014-05-01-10.23.30 ZS PMax (15234646230).jpg|frameless|right | alt=Adult]]
{{visible anchor|Asian Citrus Psyllid|Asian citrus psyllid|Diaphorina citri|text=[[Asian citrus psyllid]]s}} (''Diaphorina citri'') are a major [[invasive agricultural pest|invasive threat]] to citrus.<ref name="ACP-UCR-CISR" /><ref name="ACP-WSJ" /> (See {{section link||Citrus}}.)

[[File:DEPUTY AGRICULTURAL COMMISSIONER CONRAD SCHILLING AND PILOT JOHN GILBERT PREPARE FOR FLIGHT OVER - NARA - 542576.jpg|thumb | right | Just before dropping [[rodenticide]] into a field, [[Fresno County]]]]
Sellers ''et al.'', 2018 finds {{visible anchor|Rodents|text=[[Rodent pest|rodents]]}} and {{visible anchor|Lagomorph|Rabbit|Hare|Jackrabbit|text=[[lagomorph pest|lagomorph]]s}} ([[jackrabbit]]s, [[hare]]s, other [[rabbit]]s) do not seem to be a pest of walnut orchards here (see {{section link||Walnuts}}).<ref name="Montgomery-et-al-2020">{{cite journal |last1=Montgomery |first1=Ian |last2=Caruso |first2=Tancredi |last3=Reid |first3=Neil |title=Hedgerows as Ecosystems: Service Delivery, Management, and Restoration |journal=[[Annual Review of Ecology, Evolution, and Systematics]] |publisher=[[Annual Reviews (publisher)|Annual Reviews]] |volume=51 |issue=1 |date=November 2, 2020 |issn=1543-592X |doi=10.1146/annurev-ecolsys-012120-100346 |pages=81–102 |s2cid=218843016}}</ref> On the other hand, jackrabbits, [[cottontail]]s, and [[brush rabbit]]s certainly are a problem for pistachios (see {{section link||Pistachios}}).<ref name="UC-IPM-pistachio-rabbits">{{cite web |url=http://www.ipm.ucanr.edu/agriculture/pistachio/Rabbits/ |website=UC Integrated Pest Management |publisher=[[University of California Division of Agriculture and Natural Resources|UC Agriculture and Natural Resources]] |date=July 2016 |title=Rabbits / Pistachio / Agriculture: Pest Management Guidelines / UC Statewide IPM Program}}</ref> The lagomorph biocontrol [[myxoma virus]] is indigenous here (that is, it is [[endemic (epidemiology)|epidemiologically endemic]]) in native lagomorphs.<ref name="immune-system-lago" /> This was first disclosed in Marshall & Regnery 1960 a&b.<ref name="immune-system-lago" /> M & R found it in the tapeti (''[[Sylvilagus brasiliensis]]'') and the brush rabbit (''[[Sylvilagus bachmani]]'').<ref name="immune-system-lago">{{cite journal |year=2015 |publisher=[[Springer Science+Business Media]] |issue=2 |journal=[[Immunogenetics]] |issn=0093-7711 |first3=Ana |first1=Ana |volume=68 |last1=Pinheiro |last2=Neves |first2=Fabiana |last3=Lemos de Matos |last4=Abrantes |first4=Joana |last5=van der Loo |first5=Wessel |last6=Mage |first6=Rose |last7=Esteves |first7=Pedro José |title=An overview of the lagomorph immune system and its genetic diversity |doi=10.1007/s00251-015-0868-8 |pages=83–107 |pmid=26399242 |s2cid=18131774|doi-access=free }}</ref>

[[File:Bactrocera oleae g5.jpg|frameless | right | alt=[[Oviposition|Oviposited]] olive]]
[[File:Bactrocera oleae g2.jpg|frameless|right | alt=Dissected olive with larva]]
[[File:Fly December 2007-11.jpg|frameless|right | alt=Adult]]
Olives throughout the state suffer from the [[introduced species|introduced]] {{visible anchor|Olive Fruit Fly|Bactrocera oleae}} (''[[Bactrocera oleae]]'') here.<ref name="UC-IPM-olive-fruit-fly" /> First detected outside its traditional [[Old World]] co-occurrence with the host tree in [[Los Angeles County]] in November 1998, it has since spread throughout California and into [[Baja California|Baja]] and [[Sonora]].<ref name="UC-IPM-olive-fruit-fly" /><ref name="eradication">{{cite book |year=2021 |edition=1 |publisher=[[CRC Press]] |pages=1028 |first3=Marc |first2=Rui |first1=Jorge |last3=Vreysen |last2=Pereira |last1=Hendrichs |title=Area-wide Integrated Pest Management |isbn=9781003169239 |id={{isbn |9781000393460}}}}</ref>{{rp|168}} OFF is native to the [[Mediterranean basin]] and appears in some of the earliest written documents of human history, and is now found throughout much of the world.<ref name="ancientmodern" />

Particular strains of OFF are associated with particular [[list of olive cultivars|varieties]] here.<ref name="ancientmodern" /> Burrack & Zalom 2008 find females have strong [[oviposition]] preferences for particular varieties and their offspring show better life history performance on those preferred varieties.<ref name="ancientmodern" /> The introduction here has spurred much [[parasitoid]] research, hoping to control them with [[biological control]]s.<ref name="ancientmodern" /> Daane ''et al.'', 2008, Sime ''et al.'', 2006, Sime ''et al.'', 2007, Yokohama ''et al.'', 2006, and Yokohama ''et al.'', 2008 all were undertaken to serve this state's need for parasitoids.<ref name="ancientmodern" /> Yokohama ''et al.'', 2008 achieves 60% control in [[cage trial]]s using a [[Psyttalia concolor|''Psyttalia'' cf. ''concolor'']].<ref name="ancientmodern" /> Daane ''et al.'', 2008 finds ''[[Psyttalia lounsburyi|P. lounsburyi]]'' is especially specific to OFF over other possible hosts, and its selectivity makes it an attractive option.<ref name="ancientmodern" /> Daane ''et al.'' 2009 discloses an undescribed [[Pteromalus myopitae|''Pteromalus'' sp. nr. ''myopitae'']] first found here.<ref name="ancientmodern" /> Overall there is much concern about offtarget impacts if these were to be released.<ref name="ancientmodern">{{cite journal |year=2010 |last2=Johnson |first1=Kent |first2=Marshall |publisher=[[Annual Reviews (publisher)|Annual Reviews]] |last1=Daane |doi=10.1146/annurev.ento.54.110807.090553 |journal=[[Annual Review of Entomology]] |title=Olive Fruit Fly: Managing an Ancient Pest in Modern Times |volume=55 |pages=151–169 |pmid=19961328}}</ref>

[[File:Nasonovia ribisnigri.jpg|frameless | right | alt=Adult ''[[Nasonovia ribisnigri]]'']]
{{visible anchor|Aphids|text=[[Aphid]]}} are common [[crop pest]]s here. ''{{visible anchor|Nasonovia ribisnigri|text=[[Nasonovia ribisnigri]]}}'' is one of the most common, especially for lettuce.<ref name="Smith-Chaney-2007-bundle" /> See also {{section link||Lettuce}}, and ''{{section link||Toxomerus marginatus}}'' and ''{{section link||Platycheirus stegnus}}'' for the two most common biocontrols.

[[File:Corvus brachyrhynchos -Slates Hot Springs, California, USA-8.jpg|frameless | right | alt=[[Slates Hot Springs]]]]
{{visible anchor|Birds in fruits|text=[[bird pest|Birds are often pests]] in fruit cultivation}} here, especially in cherries.<ref name="cherry-birds-UC-IPM">{{cite web |url=http://ipm.ucanr.edu/agriculture/cherry/Birds/ |title=Birds / Cherry / Agriculture: Pest Management Guidelines |website=[[UC Statewide IPM Program]] |date=July 2017 |last=Baldwin |first=Roger A.}}</ref><ref name="fruit-vine-UC-IPM">{{cite web |title=Birds on Tree Fruits and Vines Management Guidelines |website=[[UC Statewide IPM Program]] |date=September 2010 |url=http://ipm.ucanr.edu/PMG/PESTNOTES/pn74152.html |access-date=June 21, 2022}}</ref> In [[cherry orchard]]s the most common are crows (''[[Corvus brachyrhynchos]]''), crowned sparrows: (''[[Zonotrichia]]'' spp.), European starlings (''[[Sturnus vulgaris]]''), house finches (''[[Carpodacus mexicanus]]''), house sparrows ''([[Passer domesticus]]''), scrub-jays (''[[Aphelocoma californica]]''), and {{visible anchor|Yellow-Billed Magpie|Pica nuttalli|text=[[Yellow-billed magpie]]s}} (''Pica nuttalli''), but also in apple, blueberry, and grape, and the [[American Robin]] is a problem for some of these.<ref name="fruit-vine-UC-IPM" /> See also {{section link||Methyl anthranilate}} for a repellent.

[[File:Glassy-winged Sharpshooter - Homalodisca vitripennis, Ocmulgee boat ramp, Juliette, Georgia - 7835576204.jpg|frameless|right | alt=Adult]]
The {{visible anchor|Glassy-Winged Sharpshooter|Glassy-winged sharpshooter|GWSS|Homalodisca coagulata|Homalodisca vitripennis}} (GWSS, ''[[Glassy-winged sharpshooter|Homalodisca vitripennis]]'', syn. ''H. coagulata'') is a [[vector (epidemiology)|vector]] of Pierce's Disease and other ''Xylella fastidiosa'' diseases here.<ref name="GWSS-UC-IPM">{{cite web |access-date=July 13, 2022 |date=May 20, 2005 |publisher=UC Agriculture |website=[[University of California Integrated Pest Management|UC Integrated Pest Management]] |url=https://www2.ipm.ucanr.edu/PMG/PESTNOTES/pn7492.html |title=Glassy-winged Sharpshooter Management Guidelines}}</ref><ref name="Redak-et-al-2004">{{cite journal |title=The Biology of Xylem Fluid-Feeding Insect Vectors of ''Xylella fastidiosa'' and Their Relation to Disease Epidemiology |date=2004 |doi=10.1146/annurev.ento.49.061802.123403 |pages=243–70 |volume=49 |first1=Richard A. |last1=Redak |first2=Alexander H. |last2=Purcell |first3=João R.S. |last3=Lopes |first4=Matthew J. |last4=Blua |first5=Russell F. |last5=Mizell III |first6=Peter C. |last6=Andersen |journal=[[Annual Review of Entomology]] |publisher=[[Annual Reviews (publisher)|Annual Reviews]] |pmid=14651464}}</ref><ref name="GWSS-CDFA">{{cite web |access-date=July 13, 2022 |title=PDCP - Glassy-winged Sharpshooter |website=[[California Department of Food and Agriculture]] |url=https://www.cdfa.ca.gov/pdcp/Glassy-winged_Sharpshooter.html}}</ref><ref name="CISR-GWSS">{{cite web |access-date=July 14, 2022 |date=April 4, 2020 |publisher=University of California Riverside |website=[[Center for Invasive Species Research]] |first=Mark S. |last=Hoddle |title=Glassy-Winged Sharpshooter |url=https://cisr.ucr.edu/invasive-species/glassy-winged-sharpshooter}}</ref> Probably present since the late 1980s, the GWSS was only confirmed here in 1994.<ref name="GWSS-CDFA" /> GWSS was not obviously a threat until August 1999 when it vectored PD to over {{convert|300|acre}} of vineyard in [[Temecula]], Riverside County, forcing its destruction.<ref name="GWSS-CDFA" /> GWSS was first detected in [[Solano County|Solano]] in November 2021, and although {{as of|July 2022|lc=yes}} absent from adjascent [[Napa County|Napa]] is considered a high risk for [[introduced species|introduction]].<ref name="Napa-GWSS">{{cite web |access-date=July 13, 2022 |url=https://www.countyofnapa.org/1278/Glassy-winged-Sharpshooter |website=[[Napa County]], CA |title=Glassy-winged Sharpshooter}}</ref> The staff of the {{visible anchor|Napa County Agriculture Commissioner}} does inspections of all material entering the county to prevent that from happening.<ref name="Napa-GWSS" /> GWSS is such a problem in [[Fresno County|Fresno]] that there are permanent [[agricultural quarantine|quarantine]], [[pest monitoring|monitoring]], and [[pest eradication|eradication]] activities there.<ref name="Fresno-GWSS">{{cite web |access-date=September 9, 2022 |year=2011 |website=[[County of Fresno]] |url=https://www.co.fresno.ca.us/departments/agricultural-commissioner/glassy-winged-sharpshooter-dmi |title=Glassy Winged Sharpshooter |archive-date=September 9, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220909193739/https://www.co.fresno.ca.us/departments/agricultural-commissioner/glassy-winged-sharpshooter-dmi |url-status=dead }}</ref>

[[File:Blue-Green Sharpshooter - Flickr - treegrow.jpg|frameless|right | alt=Adult]]
In 1997 the {{visible anchor|Blue-Green Sharpshooter|BGSS|Graphocephala atropunctata}} (BGSS, ''[[Graphocephala atropunctata]]'', the primary PD [[vector (epidemiology)|vector]]) arrived here and the two have combined badly ever since.<ref name="Tumber-et-al-2014">{{cite journal |last1=Tumber |first1=Kabir P. |last2=Alston |first2=Julian M. |last3=Fuller |first3=Kate B. |title=Pierce's disease costs California $104 million per year |journal=[[California Agriculture]] |publisher=[[University of California Agriculture and Natural Resources|UC Agriculture]] |volume=68 |issue=1 |year=2014 |issn=0008-0845 |doi=10.3733/ca.v068n01p20 |pages=20–29 |s2cid=86821506|doi-access=free }}</ref> Besides vectoring PD they are also themselves a sucking pest and Hewitt ''et al.'', 1949 found they will often additionally go through reproduction on the vines.<ref name="Hopkins-Purcell-2002" /> See {{section link||Pierce's Disease}}, {{section link||Grapes}}, and {{section link||Xf in stonefruit}}.

[[File:European Vine Moth.Lobesia botrana.Tortricidae - Flickr - gailhampshire.jpg|frameless|right | alt=Adult]]
The {{visible anchor|European Grapevine Moth|EGVM|Lobesia botrana}} (''[[Lobesia botrana]]'', EGVM) was present from at least 2009 through 2014.<ref name="Euro-Grape-Moth-bundle">
:*{{cite journal |last1=Gilligan |first1=Todd M. |last2=Epstein |first2=Marc E. |last3=Passoa |first3=Steven C. |last4=Powell |first4=Jerry A. |last5=Sage |first5=Obediah C. |last6=Brown |first6=John W. |title=Discovery of ''Lobesia botrana'' ([Denis & Schiffermüller]) in California: An Invasive Species New to North America (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae) |journal=[[Proceedings of the Entomological Society of Washington]] |publisher=[[Entomological Society of Washington]] |volume=113 |issue=1 |year=2011 |issn=0013-8797 |doi=10.4289/0013-8797.113.1.14 |pages=14–30 |s2cid=84709211}}
:*{{cite journal |last1=Schartel |first1=Tyler E |last2=Bayles |first2=Brett R |last3=Cooper |first3=Monica L |last4=Simmons |first4=Gregory S |last5=Thomas |first5=Shyam M |last6=Varela |first6=Lucia G |last7=Daugherty |first7=Matthew P |title=Reconstructing the European Grapevine Moth (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae), Invasion in California: Insights From a Successful Eradication |journal=[[Annals of the Entomological Society of America]] |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |volume=112 |issue=2 |date=January 4, 2019 |issn=0013-8746 |doi=10.1093/aesa/say056 |pages=107–117}}
:*{{cite web |title=European Grapevine Moth |website=USDA [[Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service]] |url=http://www.aphis.usda.gov/aphis/resources/pests-diseases/hungry-pests/the-threat/hp-egvm |access-date=July 3, 2022}}
:*{{cite web |url=http://ipm.ucanr.edu/Invasive-and-Exotic-Pests/European-grapevine-moth/ |title=European Grapevine Moth |date=November 2009 |website=[[University of California Integrated Pest Management]] |first1=Frank G. |last1=Zalom |first2=Lucia G. |last2=Varela |first3=Monica |last3=Cooper}}
:*{{cite web |first1=Barrett |last1=Gruber |first2=Matt |last2=Daugherty |title=European Grapevine Moth |website=[[Center for Invasive Species Research]] |publisher=University of California Riverside |date=December 26, 2019 |url=http://cisr.ucr.edu/invasive-species/european-grapevine-moth |access-date=July 3, 2022}}
:*{{cite web |title=Plant Health - European Grapevine Moth Pest Profile |website=[[Plant Health and Pest Prevention Services Division]], [[California Department of Food and Agriculture|CDFA]] |date=January 10, 2017 |url=http://www.cdfa.ca.gov/plant/pdep/target_pest_disease_profiles/EGVM_PestProfile.html |access-date=July 3, 2022}}
:*{{cite web |title=European Grapevine Moth (EGVM) |website=[[County of Sonoma]] |date=August 18, 2016 |url=http://sonomacounty.ca.gov/natural-resources/agricultural-weights-and-measures/programs-and-services/european-grapevine-moth |access-date=July 3, 2022}}
:*{{cite web |title=European Grapevine Moth |website=[[National Invasive Species Information Center]] |date=March 8, 2019 |url=http://www.invasivespeciesinfo.gov/terrestrial/invertebrates/european-grapevine-moth |access-date=July 3, 2022}}
:*{{cite web |title=European Grapevine Moth Cooperative Eradication Program: A Model for Fighting Future Invasive Species Threats |website=[[United States Department of Agriculture]] |date=November 2, 2016 |url=http://www.usda.gov/media/blog/2016/11/02/european-grapevine-moth-cooperative-eradication-program-model-fighting-future |access-date=July 3, 2022}}
:*{{cite web |title=European Grapevine Moth |website=[[Napa County, CA]] |date=August 18, 2016 |url=http://www.countyofnapa.org/1274/European-Grapevine-Moth |access-date=July 3, 2022}}
:*{{cite magazine |title=An Invasive-Species Success Story: The Eradication of the European Grapevine Moth in California |magazine=[[Entomology Today]] |date=March 8, 2019 |url=http://entomologytoday.org/2019/03/08/invasive-species-success-story-eradication-european-grapevine-moth-california/ |publisher=[[Entomological Society of America]] |access-date=July 3, 2022}}
</ref> A {{convert|10|acre}} [[vineyard|block]] in [[Napa County|Napa]] suffered a 100% [[crop loss]] in 2009 due to a burrowing [[caterpillar|worm]].<ref name="Euro-Grape-Moth-bundle" /> This was confirmed to be the EGVM by Gilligan ''et al.'', on September 30, 2009 (published in 2011).<ref name="Euro-Grape-Moth-bundle" /> (It is native to [[southern Italy]] and may have arrived elsewhere in the state, possibly being detected as early as 2007 by Mastro ''et al.'', and published in 2010).<ref name="Euro-Grape-Moth-bundle" /> Both [[USDA]] and [[CDFA]] impose [[agricultural quarantine|quarantines]] if two moths are found within {{convert|3|mi}} of each other within one [[biological life cycle|lifecycle]] span.<ref name="Euro-Grape-Moth-bundle" /> At first the quarantine zone was {{convert|5|mi}} around the detection sites.<ref name="Euro-Grape-Moth-bundle" /> In 2010, 40,000 [[insect trap|traps]] revealed an expanded presence {{endash}} in [[Fresno County|Fresno]], [[Mendocino County|Mendocino]], [[Merced County|Merced]], [[Monterey County|Monterey]], Napa, [[San Joaquin County|San Joaquin]], [[Santa Clara County|Santa Clara]], [[Santa Cruz County, California|Santa Cruz]], [[Solano County|Solano]], and [[Sonoma County|Sonoma]].<ref name="Euro-Grape-Moth-bundle" /> The first detection in Sonoma was around [[Kenwood, California|Kenwood]] on March 29, 2010, then a total of 59 across the County that year.<ref name="Euro-Grape-Moth-bundle" /> In 2011 only nine were detected on two sites in Sonoma, and despite the quarantine the pest spread to [[Nevada County, California|Nevada County]] in 2011.<ref name="Euro-Grape-Moth-bundle" /> The quarantine was lifted in Fresno, Mendocino, Merced, and San Joaquin in February 2012, only one insect was found in Sonoma for the year, the quarantine was lifted in Nevada, Santa Clara, and Santa Cruz counties in December, and was greatly shrunk in Solano and Sonoma in the same month.<ref name="Euro-Grape-Moth-bundle" /> No detections occurred in Sonoma in 2013.<ref name="Euro-Grape-Moth-bundle" /> The quarantine was lifted in Solano in 2014 but one EGVM was found in Sonoma for the year and so the quarantine remained in Napa and Sonoma.<ref name="Euro-Grape-Moth-bundle" /> The last detection being in June 2014 in Sonoma, all USDA and state quarantine and trapping activities ended with the declaration in August 2016 of a successful [[extirpation|eradication]].<ref name="Euro-Grape-Moth-bundle" /> See also {{section link||Grapes}}.

[[File:Prionoxystus robiniae larva.jpg|frameless|right | alt=Worm/larva]]
{{visible anchor|Carpenter Worm|Carpenter worm|Prionoxystus robiniae}} (''[[Prionoxystus robiniae]]''),<ref name="fig-invert-UCD-fruit">{{cite web |title=Fig Insect, Mite & Nematode Pests |website=[[UC Davis]] Fruit & Nut Research & Information Center |url=http://fruitandnuteducation.ucanr.edu/fruitnutproduction/Fig/Fig_Pest_Deficiencies/Fig_Insect_Mite_Nematode_Pests/ |access-date=June 29, 2022 |date=2022}}</ref> {{visible anchor|Darkling ground beetle|Blapstinus fuliginosus|Blapstinus}} (''[[Blapstinus]] [[Blapstinus fuliginosus|fuliginosus]]''),<ref name="fig-invert-UCD-fruit" /> {{visible anchor|Dried fruit beetle}} (''[[Carpophilus hemipterus]]''),<ref name="fig-invert-UCD-fruit" /> {{visible anchor|Freeman sap beetle}} (''[[Carpophilus freemani]]''),<ref name="fig-invert-UCD-fruit" /> {{visible anchor|Confused sap beetle}} (''[[Carpophilus mutilatus]]''),<ref name="fig-invert-UCD-fruit" /> {{visible anchor|Fig beetle}} (''[[Cotinis texana]]'' syn. ''C.{{nbsp}}mutabilis''),<ref name="fig-beetle-UC-IPM">{{cite web |url=http://ipm.ucanr.edu/agriculture/fig/Fig-Beetle/ |title=Fig Beetle / Fig / Agriculture |website=[[University of California Integrated Pest Management|UC Integrated Pest Management]] |publisher=UC Agriculture |date=July 2006 |id=UC ANR Publication 3447}}</ref>
<ref name="fig-invert-UCD-fruit" /> {{visible anchor|Fig mite}} (''[[Aceria]] [[Aceria fici|fici]]''),<ref name="fig-invert-UCD-fruit" /> {{visible anchor|Fig scale}} (''[[Lepiosaphes conchiformis]]''),<ref name="fig-invert-UCD-fruit" /> and Navel orangeworm<ref name="Gross-et-al-2014" /><ref name="Burks-Brandl-2004" /><ref name="fig-invert-UCD-fruit" /> are among the most important pests of fig here. (See {{section link||Figs}} and {{section link||Navel orangeworm}}.)

[[File:Jblarva.jpg|frameless|right | alt=Larva]]
{{visible anchor|Japanese Beetle|Popillia japonica}} (''[[Popillia japonica]]'') has been repeatedly found here and repeatedly [[extirpation|eradicated]].<ref name="Jap-Beetle-UC-IPM">{{cite web |url=http://ipm.ucanr.edu/Invasive-and-Exotic-Pests/Japanese-Beetle/ |website=[[University of California Integrated Pest Management|UC Integrated Pest Management]] |publisher=UC Agriculture |title=Japanese Beetle Repeatedly Eradicated from California}}</ref> Monitoring and eradication continue especially because of the [[polyphagy|wide host range]] of the grubs but also due to the grubs' and adults' destructiveness.<ref name="Jap-Beetle-UC-IPM" />

The {{visible anchor|Plum Bud Gall Mite|Acalitus phloeocoptes}} (''[[Acalitus phloeocoptes]]'' (Nalepa)) was first confirmed here in [[Santa Clara County]] in February 2019,<ref name="Santa-Clara-PBGM">{{cite web |first1=Lucy |last2=Grothe |first3=Aparna |last1=Diekmann |first2=Krysla |last3=Gazula |url=https://ucanr.edu/sites/sccNew/files/317760.pdf |title=Plum Bud Gall Mite |publisher=[[University of California Agriculture and Natural Resources]]}}</ref> but may have been found in northern [[Marin County|Marin]] in early 2014.<ref name="Diekmann-et-al-2021" /> Certainly since 2019 it has become widespread in the [[Bay Area]], {{as of|2021|lc=yes}} reaching [[Contra Costa County, California|Contra Costa]], [[Alameda County|Alameda]], [[San Mateo County|San Mateo]], [[Santa Cruz County, California|Santa Cruz]], [[Sonoma County|Sonoma]], and north into [[Western Oregon]].<ref name="Diekmann-et-al-2021" /> So far PBGM is known to be a problem on plum and [[pluot]] (see {{section link||Plums}}) and not on other stonefruits, especially not almond, even almonds nearby to infested orchards.<ref name="Diekmann-et-al-2021" />

[[File:Silverleaf whitefly.jpg|frameless|right | alt=Adult]]
The {{visible anchor|Silverleaf Whitefly|SLW|Bemisia tabaci strain B}} (SLW, [[Bemisia tabaci strain B|''Bemisia tabaci'' strain B]]) was first noticed here in the fall of 1991.<ref name="UCR-SLW" /> First appearing in the valleys of [[Deserts of California|the state's deserts]], it has caused about $500 million in agricultural losses here through 2019.<ref name="UCR-SLW" /> Further economic effects include $774 million in lost sales, $112.5 million in lost personal income, and the loss of 12,540 jobs.<ref name="UCR-SLW" /> SLW is intractable in the southern deserts, especially in [[Imperial Valley|Imperial]], [[Palo Verde Valley|Palo Verde]], [[Coachella Valley|Coachella]], and the southern part of [[San Joaquin Valley|San Joaquin]] vallies.<ref name="UCR-SLW" /> In the SJV this is worst on {{slink||Cotton}}.<ref name="UCR-SLW">{{cite web |access-date=July 9, 2022 |year=2019 |publisher=[[University of California, Riverside]] |first3=Mark |first1=Timothy |first2=Thomas |website=[[Center for Invasive Species Research]] |last1=Paine |last2=Bellows |last3=Hoddle |url=https://cisr.ucr.edu/invasive-species/silverleaf-whitefly |title=Silverleaf Whitefly}}</ref> Himler ''et al.'', 2011 find the ''[[Rickettsia]]'' sp. nr. ''[[Rickettsia bellii|bellii]]'' symbiont rapidly invaded the population of California, [[Arizona]] and [[New Mexico]].<ref name="Rapid-Spread" >
*{{cite journal |issue=1 |date=2015 |volume=60 |last=Douglas |first=Angela |pages=17–34 |publisher=[[Annual Reviews (publisher)|Annual Reviews]] |journal=[[Annual Review of Entomology]] |issn=0066-4170 |doi=10.1146/annurev-ento-010814-020822 |title=Multiorganismal Insects: Diversity and Function of Resident Microorganisms |pmid=25341109 |pmc=4465791}}
This review cites this research.
*{{cite journal |date=2011 |last1=Himler |first1=Anna |last2=Adachi-Hagimori |first2=Tetsuya |last3=Bergen |first3=Jacqueline |last4=Kozuch |first4=Amaranta |last5=Kelly |first5=Suzanne |last6=Tabashnik |first6=Bruce |last7=Chiel |first7=Elad |last8=Duckworth |first8=Victoria |last9=Dennehy |first9=Timothy |last10=Zchori-Fein |first10=Einat |last11=Hunter |first11=Martha |title=Rapid Spread of a Bacterial Symbiont in an Invasive Whitefly Is Driven by Fitness Benefits and Female Bias |journal=[[Science (journal)|Science]] |publisher=[[American Association for the Advancement of Science]] |volume=332 |issue=6026 |issn=0036-8075 |doi=10.1126/science.1199410 |pages=254–256 |pmid=21474763 |bibcode=2011Sci...332..254H |s2cid=31371994 |author-link6=Bruce Tabashnik}}
</ref>

''[[Aleyrodes]] [[Aleyrodes spiraeoides|spiraeoides]]'' is a native whitefly.<ref name="white" /> Hosts include strawberry.<ref name="white" />

''[[Trialeurodes vaporariorum]]'' has recently [[invasive agricultural pest|invaded]] the Central Coast and Southern areas.<ref name="white" /> Hosts include strawberry.<ref name="white" />

''[[Trialeurodes]] [[Trialeurodes packardi|packardi]]'' is a pest of strawberry whiteflies but less commonly than ''A. spiraeoides''.<ref name="white" >{{Cite web |access-date=2023-02-25 |title=Agriculture |website=[[UC Statewide IPM Program]] |url=https://ipm.ucanr.edu/agriculture/strawberry/whiteflies/}}</ref>

[[File:Bagrada hilaris.jpg|frameless | right | alt=Damage to [[collard greens]], central [[Los Angeles]]]]
A {{visible anchor|Painted Bug|Bagrada hilaris}}, ''[[Bagrada hilaris]]'' was first detected here in 2008 in [[San Diego County, California|San Diego]], [[Orange County, California|Orange]], [[Los Angeles County|Los Angeles]], 2009 in [[Ventura County, California|Ventura]], [[Riverside County, California|Riverside]], and [[Imperial County, California|Imperial]] counties; 2010 in [[Kern County, California|Kern]], [[San Bernardino County, California|San Bernardino]]; no new discoveries here in 2011; 2012 in [[Santa Barbara County, California|Santa Barbara]] & [[San Luis Obispo County, California|San Luis Obispo]]; 2013 in [[Monterey County, California|Monterey]], [[Santa Cruz County, California|Santa Cruz]], [[San Benito County, California|San Benito]], [[Fresno County, California|Fresno]], [[Tulare County, California|Tulare]], [[San Francisco]]; 2014 in [[Inyo County, California|Inyo]], [[Kings County, California|Kings]], [[Merced County, California|Merced]], [[Stanislaus County, California|Stanislaus]], [[Santa Clara County, California|Santa Clara]], [[Alameda County, California|Alameda]], [[San Mateo County, California|San Mateo]], and [[Yolo County, California|Yolo]].<ref name="Palumbo-et-al-2016" /> From here it has become an [[invasive crop pest|invasive pest]] of ''[[Brassica]]''s throughout the southwest US, neighboring [[Coahuila]], and the [[Big Island of Hawaii]].<ref name="Palumbo-et-al-2016" /> The most valuable crop threatened is {{section link||Broccoli}}.<ref name="Palumbo-et-al-2016" /> Much of the research on this pest in this part of the world has been performed by the Palumbo group at the [[University of Arizona]].<ref name="Palumbo-et-al-2016">{{cite journal |title=Biology, Ecology, and Management of an Invasive Stink Bug, ''Bagrada hilaris'', in North America |first1=John C. |last1=Palumbo |first2=Thomas M. |last2=Perring |first3=Jocelyn G. |last3=Millar |first4=Darcy A. |last4=Reed |journal=[[Annual Review of Entomology]] |publisher=[[Annual Reviews (publisher)|Annual Reviews]] |date=2016 |volume=61 |pages=453–73 |doi=10.1146/annurev-ento-010715-023843 |pmid=26735645}}</ref>

[[File:Lygus5.jpg|frameless|right | alt=In California]]
{{visible anchor|Lygus bug}}s are common pests here including the {{visible anchor|Western Tarnished Plant Bug|Lygus hesperus}} (WTPB, ''[[Lygus hesperus]]'').<ref name="straw-lygus-UC-IPM">{{cite web |access-date=June 27, 2022 |date=July 2018 |publisher=UC Agriculture |website=[[University of California Integrated Pest Management|UC Integrated Pest Management]] |url=https://www2.ipm.ucanr.edu/agriculture/strawberry/lygus-bug/ |first1=F.G. |last1=Zalom |first2=M.P. |last2=Bolda |first3=S.K. |last3=Dara |title=Lygus Bugs (Western Tarnished Plant Bug) Agriculture: Strawberry Pest Management Guidelines}}</ref> A vacuum collector is often used for WTPB in strawberry, called the BugVac.<ref name="Vacuum-Straw">{{cite web |access-date=June 27, 2022 |title=Single-Barrel Bug Vacuum |website=CalPoly [[Strawberry Center]] |url=https://strawberry.calpoly.edu/single-barrel-bug-vacuum}}</ref> (See also {{section link||Strawberry}}.)

[[File:D suzukii female1.jpg|frameless|right | alt=In California]]
The {{visible anchor|Spotted Wing Drosophila|Drosophila suzukii}} (''[[Drosophila suzukii]]'') is a major [[insect pest]] of soft body fruits here,<ref name="soft-body-SWD-UC-IPM">{{cite web |access-date=July 16, 2022 |date=May 20, 2005 |title=UC IPM Annual Report 2010, Spotted wing drosophila targets soft-flesh fruits |website=[[UC IPM]] |url=http://ipm.ucanr.edu/IPMPROJECT/2010/drosophila-fruits.html}}</ref><ref name="SWD-new" /> especially grape,<ref name="gr-Drosophila-UC-IPM" /> strawberry,<ref name="straw-SWD-UC-IPM">{{cite web |access-date=July 16, 2022 |date=July 2018 |website=UC Agriculture - [[University of California Integrated Pest Management|UC Integrated Pest Management]] |url=https://www2.ipm.ucanr.edu/agriculture/strawberry/spotted-wing-drosophila/ |first1=F.G. |last1=Zalom |first2=M.P. |last2=Bolda |first3=S.K. |last3=Dara |first4=S.V. |last4=Joseph |title=Spotted-Wing Drosophila ''Drosophila suzukii'' Agriculture: Strawberry Pest Management Guidelines}}</ref><ref name="SWD-Gb" /> tomato, cherry,<ref name="cher-SWD-UC-IPM">{{cite web |access-date=July 16, 2022 |date=January 2014 |website=UC Agriculture - [[University of California Integrated Pest Management|UC Integrated Pest Management]] |url=https://www2.ipm.ucanr.edu/agriculture/cherry/spotted-wing-drosophila/ |first1=J.A. |last1=Grant |first2=J.L. |last2=Caprile |first3=W.W. |last3=Coates |first4=R.A. |last4=Van Steenwyk |first5=K.M. |last5=Daane |first6=J. |last6=Colyn |first7=M. |last7=Devencenzi |first8=P. |last8=McKenzie |title=Spotted-Wing Drosophila ''Drosophila suzukii'' Agriculture: Cherry Pest Management Guidelines}}</ref><ref name="SWD-new" /> raspberry and other [[caneberries]],<ref name="cane-SWD-UC-IPM">{{cite web |access-date=July 16, 2022 |date=June 2015 |website=UC Agriculture - [[University of California Integrated Pest Management|UC Integrated Pest Management]] |url=https://www2.ipm.ucanr.edu/agriculture/ |first1=M.P. |last1=Bolda |first2=L.J. |last2=Bettiga |title=Spotted-Wing Drosophila ''Drosophila suzukii'' Agriculture: Caneberries Pest Management Guidelines}}</ref> peach and nectarine,<ref name="SWD-new" /> fig,<ref name="SWD-new">{{cite conference |date=April 5, 2012 |first=Janet |last=Caprile |title=Spotted Wing Drosophila: A New Pest of Cherries and ... |publisher=[[UC Cooperative Extension Contra Costa County]]}}</ref> and blueberry.<ref name="blue-SWD-UC-IPM">{{cite web |access-date=July 16, 2022 |date=December 2018 |website=UC Agriculture - [[University of California Integrated Pest Management|UC Integrated Pest Management]] |url=https://www2.ipm.ucanr.edu/agriculture/ |first1=D.R. |last1=Haviland |title=Spotted-Wing Drosophila ''Drosophila suzukii'' Agriculture: Blueberry Pest Management Guidelines}}</ref> {{visible anchor|Ganaspis brasiliensis|text=''[[Ganaspis brasiliensis]]''}} is a [[parasitoid]] which has been successful as a [[biocontrol]] here.<ref name="SWD-Gb">{{cite web |access-date=July 16, 2022 |date=July 15, 2022 |first=Sarah |last=Zukoff |website=[[Cal Poly Strawberry Center]] BLOG |title=SWD parasitoid releases! |url=https://strawberrycenterblog.com/2022/07/15/swd-parasitoid-releases/}}</ref>

[[File:Drosophila simulans-female.jpg|frameless|right | alt=''D. simulans'']]
Other ''{{visible anchor|Drosophila}}'' species include ''{{visible anchor|Drosophila melanogaster|text=[[Drosophila melanogaster|D. melanogaster]]}}'' and ''{{visible anchor|Drosophila simulans|text=[[Drosophila simulans|D. simulans]]}}'' which [[vector (epidemiology)|vector]] sour rot and bunch rot pathogens between grape bunches.<ref name="gr-Drosophila-UC-IPM" /> Hosts include grape<ref name="gr-Drosophila-UC-IPM">{{cite web |access-date=July 16, 2022 |date=July 2015 |title=Drosophila Flies Drosophila Flies: ''Drosophila melanogaster'', ''Drosophila simulans'' |website=UC Agriculture - [[University of California Integrated Pest Management|UC Integrated Pest Management]] |url=https://www2.ipm.ucanr.edu/agriculture/ |first1=L.G. |last1=Varela |first2=D.R. |last2=Haviland |first3=W.J. |last3=Bentley |first4=L.J. |last4=Bettiga |first5=K.M. |last5=Daane |first6=R.J. |last6=Smith |first7=L.R. |last7=Wunderlich |first8=F.G. |last8=Zalom}}</ref> and strawberry.<ref name="vfdm" >{{Cite web |access-date=2023-02-27 |title=Agriculture |website=[[UC Statewide IPM Program]] |url=https://ipm.ucanr.edu/agriculture/strawberry/vinegar-fly/}}</ref>

Turelli ''et al.'', 1991 uses a [[genetically modified Wolbachia|genetically modified ''Wolbachia'']] to suppress ''D. simulans'' to suppress its vectored diseases here.<ref name="Euro-regs-GMO-drive" /> (This has become a widely known example of ''Wolbachia'' use, and has informed [[European Union|European]] decision making on [[vector control]].)<ref name="Euro-regs-GMO-drive">
 {{cite journal |year=2020 |volume=18 |issue=11 |page=6297 |author1=EFSA Panel on Genetically Modified Organisms |first2=Hanspeter |last2=Naegeli |first3=Jean-Louis |last3=Bresson |first4=Tamas |last4=Dalmay |first5=Ian C. |last5=Dewhurst |first6=Michelle M. |last6=Epstein |first7=Philippe |last7=Guerche |first8=Jan |last8=Hejatko |first9=Francisco J. |last9=Moreno |first10=Ewen |last10=Mullins |first11=Fabien |last11=Nogue |first12=Nils |last12=Rostoks |first13=Jose J. |last13=Sánchez Serrano |first14=Giovanni |last14=Savoini |first15=Eve |last15=Veromann |first16=Fabio |last16=Veronesi |first17=Michael B. |last17=Bonsall |first18=John |last18=Mumford |first19=Ernst A. |last19=Wimmer |first20=Yann |last20=Devos |first21=Konstantinos |last21=Paraskevopoulos |first22=Leslie G. |last22=Firbank |s2cid=226976344 |doi=10.2903/j.efsa.2020.6297 |title=Adequacy and sufficiency evaluation of existing EFSA guidelines for the molecular characterisation, environmental risk assessment and post-market environmental monitoring of genetically modified insects containing engineered gene drives |journal=[[EFSA Journal]] |publisher=[[John Wiley and Sons Ltd]] |pmid=33209154 |pmc=7658669}}
</ref>

[[File:Caterpillar of Estigmene acrea. Saltmarsh or Acrea Moth (37647451090).jpg|frameless|right | alt=Caterpillar]]
The {{visible anchor|Salt Marsh Caterpillar|Estigmene acrea}} (''[[Estigmene acrea]]'') is very common here, but usually causes no damage because they are a [[native pest]] with many [[natural enemies]] acting as [[biocontrol]]s.<ref name="Straw-Salt-Marsh">{{cite web |access-date=July 20, 2022 |date=July 19, 2022 |title=Salt marsh caterpillar damage in strawberries |website=[[Cal Poly Strawberry Center]] BLOG |url=https://strawberrycenterblog.com/2022/07/19/salt-marsh-caterpillar-damage-in-strawberries/}}</ref><ref name="Salt-Marsh-IPM-UCANR">{{cite web |access-date=July 20, 2022 |date=July 2018 |website=UC Agriculture, [[University of California Integrated Pest Management|UC Integrated Pest Management]] |url=https://www2.ipm.ucanr.edu/agriculture/strawberry/Saltmarsh-caterpillar/ |first1=F. G. |last1=Zalom |first2=M. P. |last2=Bolda |first3=S. K. |last3=Dara |first4=S. V. |last4=Joseph |title=Saltmarsh Caterpillar ''Estigmene acrea'' Agriculture: Strawberry Pest Management Guidelines}}</ref> SMC can be significant in strawberry, see {{section link||Strawberries}}.<ref name="Straw-Salt-Marsh" /><ref name="Salt-Marsh-IPM-UCANR" />

[[File:Bactrocera zonata (06410603) (6922932505).jpg|frameless|right | alt=Adult]]
The {{visible anchor|Peach Fruit Fly|Bactrocera zonata}} (''[[Bactrocera]] [[Bactrocera zonata|zonata]]'' Saunders) has been repeatedly introduced and quickly eradicated here, in 1984<ref name="Gomes-2000">{{cite web |date=May 2000 |first=Patrick |last=Gomes |pages=iv+50 |publisher=[[International Atomic Energy Agency]] & [[Food and Agriculture Organization]] |url=https://www.iaea.org/sites/default/files/21/06/nafa-ipc-manual-ipc-zonata-action-plan.pdf |title=Action Plan Peach Fruit Fly ''Bactrocera zonata'' (Saunders)}}</ref> and in 2006.<ref name="Perdue-PFF">{{cite web |url=https://download.ceris.purdue.edu/file/3137 |title=''Bactrocera zonata'' |website=[[Purdue University]]}}</ref><ref name="Find-Emerg-bundle" /><ref name="Biz-J" /> Then on September 29 and/or 30, 2020, three PFF were found in Chowchilla, Madera County.<ref name="Find-Emerg-bundle" /><ref name="Biz-J" /> This presents a tremendous hazard not only to the area but to the state, and indeed the entire country.<ref name="Find-Emerg-bundle" /><ref name="Biz-J" /> Because the pest may spread from here to other countries, [[trading partner]]s including the European Union and New Zealand are also concerned.<ref name="Find-Emerg-bundle" /><ref name="Biz-J" /> They are considering restricting importation of fruits and vegetables from the state.<ref name="Biz-J" /> As a result, the Secretary of CDFA, [[Karen Ross]] has declared a [[biosecurity]] emergency and [[extirpation|eradication]] efforts using [[methyl eugenol]] lures are underway.<ref name="Find-Emerg-bundle" /><ref name="Biz-J" /> Especially an immediate concern are California's $2.10b citrus-, $875m stonefruit-, and $1.19b tomato industries.<ref name="Find-Emerg-bundle">
*{{cite web |date=April 23, 2020 |author=New Zealand Government |author-link=New Zealand Government |title=MPI Emerging Risks System for Biosecurity 21th Stakeholder Report 5 September 2020 – 19 March 2021 |url=https://kvh.org.nz/vdb/document/104784}}
*{{cite journal |issue=1 |volume=18 |date=January 29, 2021 |last1=Mertens |first1=Jan |last2=Schenk |first2=Martijn |last3=Delbianco |first3=Alice |last4=Graziosi |first4=Ignazio |last5=Vos |first5=Sybren |title=Pest survey card on ''Bactrocera zonata'' |journal=EFSA Supporting Publications |doi=10.2903/sp.efsa.2021.EN-1999 |s2cid=234284179|doi-access=free }}
*{{cite web |title=Finding of Emergency |id=KR, Secretary of CDFA |publisher=[[California Department of Food and Agriculture]] |first=Karen |last=Ross |author-link=Karen Ross |url=https://www.cdfa.ca.gov/plant/docs/3591-12_Finding-of-Emergency-PFF-E6-checked.pdf}}
*{{cite web |title=Official Notice for the City of Chowchilla Please Read Immediately |date=October 2, 2020 |id=KR, Secretary of CDFA |publisher=[[California Department of Food and Agriculture]] |url=https://www.cdfa.ca.gov/plant/PDEP/treatment/notices/2020/MaderaCounty/PFF-NOT-ChowchillaMaderaCounty2020Oct2.pdf |first=Karen |last=Ross |author-link=Karen Ross}}
*{{cite web |access-date=July 20, 2022 |date=July 15, 2021 |author=[[California Department of Food and Agriculture]] |url=https://www.cdfa.ca.gov/plant/regs_PeachFruitFly.html |title=Plant Health - Peach Fruit Fly}}
</ref><ref name="Biz-J">{{cite web |access-date=July 20, 2022 |date=October 2, 2020 |website=The Business Journal |url=https://thebusinessjournal.com/ag-pest-found-for-first-time-in-madera-county/ |title=Ag pest found for first time in Madera County}}</ref> (See also {{section link||Chowchilla}}, {{section link||Citrus}}, {{section link||Stonefruit}}, and {{section link||Tomatoes}}.)

[[File:Cotinis mutabilis-3.jpg|frameless|right | alt=Adult]]
The {{visible anchor|Green Fruit Beetle|Figeater beetle|Cotinis mutabilis}} (Figeater Beetle, ''[[Cotinis mutabilis]]'') is occasionally a pest of ripened fruit, including apricot, caneberry, fig, grape, peach, and plum.<ref name="UC-IPM" /> The [[larva]]e/grubs are harmless however.<ref name="UC-IPM">{{cite web |access-date=July 31, 2022 |date=May 20, 2005 |publisher=UC Agriculture |website=[[University of California Integrated Pest Management|UC Integrated Pest Management]] |url=https://www2.ipm.ucanr.edu/PMG/GARDEN/FRUIT/PESTS/grfruitbeetle.html |title=Managing Pests in Gardens: Fruit: Invertebrates: Green fruit beetle}}</ref>

[[File:Spodoptera exigua?.jpg|frameless|right | alt=Adult]]
For {{visible anchor|Beet Armyworm|BAW|Spodoptera exigua}}s (BAW, ''[[Spodoptera exigua]]'') in strawberry<ref name="S-ex-straw-UC-IPM">{{cite web |access-date=August 7, 2022 |date=July 2018 |first4=S. V. |first3=S. K. |first2=M. P. |first1=F. G. |last4=Joseph |title=Beet Armyworm |website=UC Agriculture - [[University of California Integrated Pest Management|UC Integrated Pest Management]] |last1=Zalom |last2=Bolda |last3=Dara |url=https://www2.ipm.ucanr.edu/agriculture/strawberry/Beet-armyworm/}}</ref> and lettuce<ref name="S-ex-lett-UC-IPM">{{cite web |access-date=August 8, 2022 |date=April 2017 |first4=N. C. |first3=S. K. |first2=S. V. |first1=E. T. |last2=Joseph |title=Beet Armyworm |website=UC Agriculture - [[University of California Integrated Pest Management|UC Integrated Pest Management]] |last1=Natwick |last3=Dara |last4=Toscano |url=https://www2.ipm.ucanr.edu/agriculture/strawberry/Beet-armyworm/}}</ref> see {{section link||Pests of strawberry}} and {{section link||Lettuce}}. ''S. exigua'' populations here have long standing [[carbamate resistance]].<ref name="Metabolic" >{{Cite journal |issue=2 |year=2021 |volume=29 |last1=Hafeez |first1=Muhammad |last2=Ullah |first2=Farman |last3=Khan |first3=Musa |last4=Li |first4=Xiaowei |last5=Zhang |first5=Zhijun |last6=Shah |first6=Sakhawat |last7=Imran |first7=Muhammad |last8=Assiri |first8=Mohammed |last9=Fernandez |first9=G. Mandela |last10=Desneux |first10=Nicolas |last11=Rehman |first11=Muzammal |last12=Fahad |first12=Shah |last13=Lu |first13=Yaobin |title=Metabolic-based insecticide resistance mechanism and ecofriendly approaches for controlling of beet armyworm ''Spodoptera exigua'': a review |journal=[[Environmental Science and Pollution Research]] |publisher=[[Springer Science and Business Media LLC]] |issn=0944-1344 |doi=10.1007/s11356-021-16974-w |pages=1746–1762 |pmid=34709552 |s2cid=240006285}}</ref>

[[File:Coptotermes formosanus shiraki USGov k8204-7.jpg|frameless|right | alt=Adults]]
First identified here in 1992 in [[La Mesa, California|La Mesa]], San Diego County by Haagsma ''et al.'',<ref name="Formosan-UC-IPM">{{cite web |access-date=August 12, 2022 |date=May 20, 2005 |title=Subterranean and Other Termites Management Guidelines |url=http://ipm.ucanr.edu/PMG/PESTNOTES/pn7415.html |website=[[UC IPM]]}}</ref> the {{visible anchor|Formosan Termite|Coptotermes formosanus}} (''[[Coptotermes formosanus]]'') has been here since at least 10 years prior.<ref name="Formosan-establish" /> As with every other infestation anywhere in the world, it has never been eradicated, and is still present at the original La Mesa site.<ref name="Formosan-establish">
*{{cite book |pages=xii+431 |year=1999 |publisher=[[Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht]] |publication-place=[[Dordrecht]] |editor-first1=Odd Terje |editor-last1=Sandlund |editor-first2=Peter Johan |editor-last2=Schei |editor-first3=Åslaug |editor-last3=Viken |title=Invasive Species and Biodiversity Management |isbn=978-0-7923-6876-2 |id={{isbn |9789401145244}}. {{isbn |978-0-412-84080-7}} |doi=10.1007/978-94-011-4523-7|doi-broken-date=November 1, 2024 }}
*{{cite journal |year=1995 |issue=1 |volume=49 |pages=30–33 |publisher=[[University of California Agriculture and Natural Resources]] |first1=Karl |first5=David |journal=[[California Agriculture]] |issn=0008-0845 |first3=Donald A. |first2=Michael K. |last1=Haagsma |last2=Rust |last3=Reierson |last4=Atkinson |first4=Thomas H. |last5=Kellum |title=Formosan subterranean termite established in California |doi=10.3733/ca.v049n01p30|doi-access=free }}
</ref> In the time since there have been new infestations {{endash}} mostly suspected to be independent introductions {{endash}} in [[Canyon Lake (California)|Canyon Lake, Riverside County]] in 2020, [[Rancho Santa Fe, California|Rancho Santa Fe, San Diego County]] in 2021, [[Highland Park, Los Angeles|Highland Park, Los Angeles County]] in 2021.<ref name="Formosan-recent">{{cite web |access-date=August 12, 2022 |date=December 16, 2021 |title=Formosan termites in California – Urban IPM SoCal |website=Urban IPM SoCal – Integrated Pest Management for Structural Pests in Southern California |url=https://urbanipmsocal.com/ipm/termites/formosan-termites-in-california/ |first=Siavash |last=Taravati}}</ref><ref name="Formosan-2021">{{cite journal |date=2021 |issue=3 |last7=Lee |first2=Jason |last4=King |volume=114 |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |journal=[[Journal of Economic Entomology]] |issn=0022-0493 |last2=Boone |last1=Tseng |first1=Shu-Ping |last3=Boone |first3=Lowell |first4=Natalee |last5=Taravati |first5=Siavash |last6=Choe |first6=Dong-Hwan |first7=Chow-Yang |title=Genetic Analysis of Formosan Subterranean Termite (Blattodea: Rhinotermitidae) Populations in California |doi=10.1093/jee/toab077 |pages=1264–1269 |pmid=33885810}}</ref> The Formosan Termite is a pest of [[sugarcane]], and for another host see {{section link||Citrus}}, but it is most often a [[structural pest]].<ref name="Formosan-ISC">{{cite web |date=November 21, 2019 |access-date=August 12, 2022 |website=[[Invasive Species Compendium]] |title=''Coptotermes formosanus'' (Formosan subterranean termite) |url=https://www.cabi.org/isc/datasheet/15284 |publisher=[[Centre for Agriculture and Bioscience International|CABI]])}}</ref>

[[File:Diabrotica balteata.jpg|frameless|right | alt=Adult]]
{{visible anchor|Cucumber Beetle|Diabrotica balteata|Acalymma vittatum|Diabrotica undecimpunctata}}s (''[[Diabrotica balteata]]'', ''[[Acalymma vittatum]]'', ''[[Diabrotica undecimpunctata|D. undecimpunctata]]'') are common pests here.<ref name="ap-UC-IPM" /> UC IPM provides recommended practices for apricot,<ref name="ap-UC-IPM">{{cite web |access-date=August 19, 2022 |date=October 2014 |publisher=UC Agriculture |website=[[University of California Integrated Pest Management|UC Integrated Pest Management]] |title=Cucumber Beetles |url=https://www2.ipm.ucanr.edu/agriculture/apricot/Cucumber-beetles/}}</ref> see also {{section link||Apricot}}.

[[File:Daktulosphaira vitifoliae. closeup.jpg|thumb | right | [[Gall]]s]]
{{visible anchor|Phylloxera of Grape|Daktulosphaira vitifoliae}} (''[[Daktulosphaira vitifoliae]]'') is a perennial aphid problem here.<ref name="Keller" />{{rp|pages=24{{endash}}25}} The industry suffered a wipeout in the 1980s due to overreliance on one, non-resistant [[rootstock]].<ref name="Keller">{{cite book |year=2020 |edition=3 |publication-place=[[London]] |publisher=[[Academic Press]] |last=Keller |first=Markus |title=The Science of Grapevines |isbn=978-0-12-816702-1 |oclc=1137850204 |pages=xii+541}}</ref>{{rp|pages=24{{endash}}25}} Islam ''et al.'', 2013 explains some of the [[genetic diversity]] of the population here by [[sexual reproduction]], but their sampling leaves open other possibilities for the remainder.<ref name="efsaphyllo" /> They also find two major [[subpopulation]]s differentiated by [[rootstock]] association: [[AxR1]] associated and those associated with all others.<ref name="efsaphyllo">{{cite journal |year=2014 |author=Richard Baker |author2=Claude Bragard |author3=Thierry Candresse |author4=Gianni Gilioli |author5=Jean Grégoire |author6=Imre Holb |author7=Michael Jeger |author8=Olia Karadjova |author9=Christer Magnusson |author10=David Makowski |author11=Charles Manceau |author12=Maria Navajas |author13=Trond Rafoss |author14=Vittorio Rossi |author15=Jan Schans |author16=Gritta Schrader |author17=Gregor Urek |author18=Johan Lenteren |author19=Irene Vloutoglou |author20=Wopke Werf |author21=Stephan Winter |title=Scientific Opinion on the risk to plant health posed by ''Daktulosphaira vitifoliae'' (Fitch) in the EU territory, with the identification and evaluation of risk reduction options |s2cid=73335810 |doi=10.2903/J.EFSA.2014.3678 |journal=[[EFSA Journal]] |volume=12 |issue=5|doi-access=free |hdl=11379/492698 |hdl-access=free }} cites {{cite journal |year=2013 |journal=[[BMC Genetics]] |first5=Hong |first4=Jeffrey |first3=Michael |first2=Tamara |first1=Muhammad |last5=Lin |last4=Granett |last3=Walker |last2=Roush |last1=Islam |s2cid=13391284 |title=Reproductive mode and fine-scale population genetic structure of grape phylloxera (''Daktulosphaira vitifoliae'') in a viticultural area in California |volume=14 |page=123 |doi=10.1186/1471-2156-14-123 |pmid=24367928 |pmc=3890642 |doi-access=free }}</ref>

[[File:Rhynchophorus ferrugineus larva.JPG|frameless|right | alt=Larva]]
The detection of the {{visible anchor|Red Palm Weevil|Rhynchophorus ferrugineus}} (''[[Rhynchophorus ferrugineus]]'') in 2010 was very concerning to this valuable industry.<ref name="Hoddle-et-al-2016" /><ref name="UCR-RPW" /> It most likely arrived with in live palms which are commonly sold internationally.<ref name="UCR-RPW" /> The adults flew up to {{convert|900|m|ft yd|0}} in a day, and over 3 to 5 days that allowed dispersal up to {{convert|7|km|mi|1}}.<ref name="UCR-RPW" /> A tremendous effort was made to trap and [[pest eradication|eradicate]],<ref name="Hoddle-et-al-2016" /> UCR's [[Center for Invasive Species Research]] recommended mostly insecticides, and quick destruction of any palms found to be infested. Pheromone [[attractant]] traps were very effective.<ref name="UCR-RPW" /> The {{visible anchor|California Fan Palm|Washingtonia filifera}} (''[[Washingtonia filifera]]'') and the {{visible anchor|European Fan Palm|Chamaerops humilis}} (''[[Chamaerops humilis]]'') seemed to be resistant.<ref name="UCR-RPW">{{cite web |website=University of California, Riverside [[Center for Invasive Species Research]] |access-date=September 9, 2022 |date=January 23, 2020 |last1=Nisson |first1=Nick |first2=Donald |last2=Hodel |first3=Mark S. |last3=Hoddle |url=https://cisr.ucr.edu/invasive-species/red-palm-weevil |title=Red Palm Weevil}}</ref> The last sighting was on January 18, 2012.<ref name="Hoddle-et-al-2016" /> Three years later on January 20, 2015, USDA's [[APHIS]] declared the eradication successful.<ref name="Hoddle-et-al-2016" /> Its relative the South American palm weevil (''[[Rhynchophorus palmarum|R. palmarum]]'') has killed increasing numbers of Canary Island date palms (''[[Phoenix canariensis]]'') and is expected to become a significant pest of dates in the future.<ref name="Hoddle-et-al-2016">{{cite journal |last1=Hoddle |first1=Mark S. |last2=Hoddle |first2=Christina D. |last3=Alzubaidy |first3=Mohammed |last4=Kabashima |first4=John |last5=Nisson |first5=J. Nicholas |last6=Millar |first6=Jocelyn |last7=Dimson |first7=Monica |title=The palm weevil ''Rhynchophorus vulneratusis'' eradicated from Laguna Beach |journal=[[California Agriculture]] |publisher=[[University of California Division of Agriculture and Natural Resources|UC Agriculture and Natural Resources]] |volume=71 |issue=1 |year=2016 |issn=0008-0845 |doi=10.3733/ca.2016a0012 |pages=23–29|doi-access=free }}</ref> For a common host see {{section link||Date}}.

[[File:CulexTarsalis 4561.jpg|frameless | right | alt=[[Orange, California|Orange]]]]
Several ''{{visible anchor|Culex|text=[[Culex]]}}'' mosquitoes are common here including ''{{visible anchor|Culex quinquefasciatus|text=[[Culex quinquefasciatus|C. quinquefasciatus]]}}'', ''{{visible anchor|Culex stigmatosoma|text=[[Culex stigmatosoma|C. stigmatosoma]]}}'', and ''{{visible anchor|Culex tarsalis|text=[[Culex tarsalis|C. tarsalis]]}}''.<ref name="relictum-CABI-2019-bundle" /> Insecticides are often used in [[mosquito control|their control]]<ref name="Hawkins" /> and as a result some species have undergone [[insecticide resistance evolution (disambiguation)|resistance evolution]].<ref name="Hawkins" /> Mouches ''et al.'', 1986 finds one population achieved this via [[gene amplification]] of an [[esterase]].<ref name="Hawkins">{{cite journal |year=2018 |issue=1 |publisher=[[John Wiley & Sons Ltd]] |journal=[[Biological Reviews of the Cambridge Philosophical Society]] |issn=1464-7931 |volume=94 |pages=135–155 |last1=Hawkins |first1=Nichola J. |last2=Bass |first2=Chris |last3=Dixon |first3=Andrea |last4=Neve |first4=Paul |title=The evolutionary origins of pesticide resistance |doi=10.1111/brv.12440 |pmc=6378405 |pmid=29971903}}</ref><ref name="Tactics-Managing">
 {{cite journal |year=1992 |publisher=[[Annual Reviews (publisher)|Annual Reviews]] |first1=I. |last1=Denholm |first2=M. W. |last2=Rowland |volume=37 |pages=91–112 |issn=0066-4170 |journal=[[Annual Review of Entomology]] |doi=10.1146/ANNUREV.EN.37.010192.000515 |title=Tactics For Managing Pesticide Resistance In Arthropods: Theory And Practice |pmid=1539942 |s2cid=35601066}}
</ref> See also {{section link||Avian malaria}}.

[[File:Therioaphis trifolii 21251242.jpg|frameless|right | alt=Adults]]
The southern part of the state suffers from the {{visible anchor|Walnut Aphid|Spotted Alfalfa AphidTherioaphis trifolii}} (Spotted Alfalfa Aphid, ''[[Therioaphis trifolii]]'').<ref name="Georghiou" /> Stern & Reynolds 1958 finds that from the beginning of the 1950s to the end of the decade severe [[parathion resistance]] had rapidly developed there.<ref name="Georghiou" />

[[File:Flesh Fly Los Angeles 2015-08-06 5.jpg|frameless | right | alt=[[Los Angeles]]]]
The common {{visible anchor|House Fly|Musca domestica}} (''[[Musca domestica]]'') is economically significant in poultry production worldwide, including in California.<ref name="Georghiou" /> From 1964 to 1969 Georghiou & Hawley 1972 finds rapid evolution of [[organophosphate resistance]] in a poultry facility in [[Moorpark]].<ref name="Georghiou">{{cite journal |year=1972 |issue=1 |volume=3 |pages=133–168 |publisher=[[Annual Reviews (publisher)|Annual Reviews]] |journal=[[Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics]] |issn=0066-4162 |last=Georghiou |first=G. P. |title=The Evolution of Resistance to Pesticides |doi=10.1146/annurev.es.03.110172.001025|bibcode=1972AnRES...3..133G }}</ref> The most common [[permethrin kdr allele|permethrin ''kdr'' allele]] here is ''[[kdr-his]]'', although ''[[kdr (allele)|kdr]]'' and ''[[super-kdr]]'' are also present.<ref name="Life-and-Death" /> (This profile is also found in [[New Mexico|New Mexican]], [[Florida|Floridian]], [[North Carolina|North Carolinian]], [[New York (state)|New York]], and [[Montana]]n populations.)<ref name="Life-and-Death">{{cite journal |year=2019 |issue=1 |volume=64 |publisher=[[Annual Reviews (publisher)|Annual Reviews]] |issn=0066-4170 |journal=[[Annual Review of Entomology]] |last=Scott |first=Jeffrey |pages=243–257 |doi=10.1146/annurev-ento-011118-112420 |title=Life and Death at the Voltage-Sensitive Sodium Channel: Evolution in Response to Insecticide Use |pmid=30629893 |s2cid=58667542}}</ref>

The {{visible anchor|Mexfly|Mexican fruit fly|Anastrepha ludens}} (Mexican fruit fly, ''[[Anastrepha ludens]]'') has repeatedly invaded [[southern California|the southern part of the state]].<ref name="SIT">{{cite book |year=2021 |language=en |pages=xv+1200 |first1=Victor A. |last1=Dyck |first2=Jorge |last2=Hendrichs |first3=A. S. |last3=Robinson |publisher=[[CRC Press]] |isbn=978-1-000-37776-7 |id={{ISBN |978-0-367-47434-8}}. {{ISBN |978-1-003-03557-2}} |oclc=1227700317 |title=Sterile Insect Technique: Principles And Practice In Area-Wide Integrated Pest Management}}</ref>{{rp|page=16}} Sterile insect technique (SIT) has been used to great success to [[pest eradication|eradicate]] them every time, both here and in Texas.<ref name="SIT" />{{rp|page=16}}

The {{visible anchor|Medfly|Mediterranean fruit fly|Ceratitis capitata}} (Mediterranean fruit fly, ''[[Ceratitis capitata]]'') has also been controlled with SIT both here and in [[Florida]], although before 1980 both states used [[malathion]] baits.<ref name="SIT" />{{rp|page=18}} Eradication by SIT was accomplished with the help of the [[Nuclear Techniques in Food and Agriculture]] program, a joint effort of the [[United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization]] and the [[International Atomic Energy Agency]] (FAO-IAEA).<ref name="Induced">{{cite book |year=2009 |first=Q. |last=Shu |publisher=[[United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization]] & [[International Atomic Energy Agency]] |url=https://inis.iaea.org/search/search.aspx?orig_q=RN:42072639 |title=Induced Plant Mutations in the Genomics Era}}</ref>{{rp|30}} Studies of the Medfly invasion here show that there have been many almost-invasions at [[List of airports in California|the state's airports]] and other ports, most of which have failed to [[established species|establish]]<ref name="Recent-Radiation" /> including a small infestation in 1975 in [[Los Angeles]] which was eradicated using SIT.<ref name="eradication"/>{{rp|174}} This has informed [[pest quarantine|quarantine]] and [[invasion biology]] efforts and studies on the Medfly around the world.<ref name="Recent-Radiation">
 {{cite journal |year=2005 |volume=50 |pages=293–319 |publisher=[[Annual Reviews (publisher)|Annual Reviews]] |first7=David |first1=Anthony |first6=George |first2=Karen |first5=S. |first3=Amy |first4=John |last7=Yeates |last2=Armstrong |last6=Roderick |last4=Milne |last3=Carmichael |last1=Clarke |last5=Raghu |journal=[[Annual Review of Entomology]] |doi=10.1146/annurev.ento.50.071803.130428 |title=Invasive Phytophagous Pests Arising Through A Recent Tropical Evolutionary Radiation: The ''Bactrocera dorsalis'' Complex of Fruit Flies |pmid=15355242 |s2cid=19452754 |url=https://eprints.qut.edu.au/3257/1/3257_1.pdf}}
</ref>

''{{visible anchor|Tetranychus|text=[[Tetranychus]]}}'' is a genus of {{visible anchor|Spider mites|text=[[spider mite]]s}}.<ref name="Resist91" />{{rp|page=18}} Three species are common on cotton here<ref name="Resist91" />{{rp|page=18}} including the {{visible anchor|Pacific Spider Mite}} (''[[Tetranychus]] [[Tetranychus pacificus|pacificus]]'') and the {{visible anchor|Two-Spotted Spider Mite}} (''[[Tetranychus urticae|T. urticae]]'').<ref name="CABI-pacificus">{{cite web |access-date=September 13, 2022 |year=2019 |website=[[Invasive Species Compendium]] |publisher=[[Centre for Agriculture and Bioscience International|CABI]] |url=https://www.cabi.org/isc/datasheet/53361 |title=''Tetranychus pacificus'' (Pacific spider mite)}}</ref><ref name="Resist91" />{{rp|page=18}} and they are hard to distinguish because they are [[sympatric]].<ref name="Resist91" />{{rp|page=18}} Distinguishing them is nonetheless necessary, because they differ widely in [[insecticide resistance]], with the PSM the worst.<ref name="Resist91" />{{rp|page=18}} The PSM and 2SSM are also significant in peach here.<ref name="UC-IPM-peach">{{cite web |website=[[University of California Integrated Pest Management|UC Integrated Pest Management]] |publisher=UC Agriculture |url=http://ipm.ucanr.edu/agriculture/peach/ |title=Peach / Agriculture: Pest Management}}</ref> (See {{section link||Cotton}} and {{section link||Arthropods in peach}}.) Two-Spotted Spider Mite is also a major pest of strawberry,<ref name="strawmolrev">{{cite journal |date=2011 |issue=11 |volume=52 |first4=José |first3=Juan |first2=Rosario |first1=Francisco |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |journal=[[Plant and Cell Physiology]] |issn=1471-9053 |last4=Caballero |last3=Muñoz |last2=Blanco |last1=Amil |pages=1873–1903 |s2cid=37885279 |pmid=21984602 |doi=10.1093/pcp/pcr136 |title=The Strawberry Plant Defense Mechanism: A Molecular Review|doi-access=free }}</ref> see [[Production of strawberries in California]].

{{Visible anchor|Cotton Aphid|Melon Aphid|Aphis gossypii}}s (''[[Aphis gossypii]]'', Melon Aphid) afflict cotton and melon crops here.<ref name="Risks-For-Beneficial" /> Insecticides are commonly used, and this has produced [[insecticide resistance|resistance]] and may also contaminate their [[honeydew (secretion)|honeydew]].<ref name="Risks-For-Beneficial" /> Insecticide contaminated honeydew may harm [[beneficial insect]]s.<ref name="Risks-For-Beneficial">{{cite journal |year=2021 |issue=2 |volume=97 |publisher=[[John Wiley & Sons Ltd]] |first2=John |first4=Alejandro |first1=Miguel |issn=1464-7931 |journal=[[Biological Reviews of the Cambridge Philosophical Society]] |last1=Calvo-Agudo |last2=Tooker |last3=Dicke |first3=Marcel |last4=Tena |pages=664–678 |doi=10.1111/brv.12817 |title=Insecticide-contaminated honeydew: risks for beneficial insects |pmid=34802185 |pmc=9299500}}</ref> See also {{section link||Cotton}}.

The {{Visible anchor|Avocado Thrips}} (''[[Scirtothrips perseae]]'') and {{Visible anchor|Persea Mite}} (''[[Oligonychus perseae]]'') are two [[invasive pest]]s here.<ref name="Exotic-Biosecurity">{{cite book |pages=265 |date=2003 |first2=Frank |first1=Daniel |last2=Buck |publication-place=[[Ames, Iowa]], US |last1=Sumner |publisher=[[Iowa State Press]] |oclc=212121111 |isbn=978-0-470-29012-5 |title=Exotic Pests and Diseases: Biology and Economics for Biosecurity}}</ref> For a host see {{section link||Avocado}}.

The {{Visible anchor|Tobacco Budworm|Chloridea virescens|Heliothis virescens}} (''[[Chloridea virescens]]'', ''Heliothis virescens'') is common on cotton in the [[Imperial Valley]].<ref name="Resist91" />{{rp|page=80}} At least by 1985 ''C. virescens'' had developed [[permethrin resistance]].<ref name="Resist91" />{{rp|page=80}} Nicholson & Miller 1985 find severe [[metabolic resistance]] to permethrin in Imperial Valley populations.<ref name="Resist91">{{cite book |year=1991 |first2=Bruce |first1=Richard |publisher=[[Springer Publishing]] |publication-place=[[Boston]], Mass, US |last1=Roush |last2=Tabashnik |pages=ix+303 |isbn=978-1-4684-6431-3 |id={{isbn |978-1-4684-6429-0}} |oclc=840289391 |s2cid=43656561 |title=Pesticide Resistance in Arthropods |doi=10.1007/978-1-4684-6429-0 |author2-link=Bruce Tabashnik}}</ref>{{rp|page=80}} See also {{Section link||Cotton}} and [[Imperial Valley]].

{{visible anchor|Western Flower Thrips}} (''[[Western flower thrips|Frankliniella occidentalis]]'') is a major pest of [[horticulture|horticulturals]] around the world.<ref name="Camino-Real-cidal" /> Here, it is especially known as a pest of peach<ref name="UC-IPM-peach" /> and strawberry.<ref name="wftfo" >{{Cite web |access-date=2023-02-28 |title=Agriculture |website=[[UC Statewide IPM Program]] |url=https://ipm.ucanr.edu/agriculture/strawberry/western-flower-thrips/}}</ref><ref name="Camino-Real-cidal">
*{{cite journal |issue=1 |volume=65 |date=January 7, 2020 |journal=[[Annual Review of Entomology]] |issn=0066-4170 |publisher=[[Annual Reviews (publisher)|Annual Reviews]] |pages=17–37 |last1=Reitz |first1=Stuart R. |last2=Gao |first2=Yulin |last3=Kirk |first3=William D.J. |last4=Hoddle |first4=Mark S. |last5=Leiss |first5=Kirsten A. |last6=Funderburk |first6=Joe E. |title=Invasion Biology, Ecology, and Management of Western Flower Thrips |doi=10.1146/annurev-ento-011019-024947 |s2cid=198909961 |pmid=31536711 |url=http://eprints.keele.ac.uk/6522/1/Reitz%20et%20al%20Ann%20Rev%20Ent%202020.pdf}}
*{{cite journal |issue=5 |date=October 1, 2010 |volume=103 |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |first2=Helen |first3=Sonya |last1=Rahman |first1=Touhidur |last2=Spafford |last3=Broughton |title=Variation in Preference and Performance of ''Frankliniella occidentalis'' (Thysanoptera: Thripidae) on Three Strawberry Cultivars |journal=[[Journal of Economic Entomology]] |issn=0022-0493 |doi=10.1603/ec10056 |pages=1744–1753 |s2cid=23901346 |pmid=21061975|doi-access=free }}
</ref> (See also {{section link||Cultivars of strawberry}}, {{section link||Arthropods in peach}}, {{section link||Pests of strawberry}}.)

[[File:Diamondback moth larvae.jpg|frameless|right]]
The {{Visible anchor|Diamondback Moth|Plutella xylostella}} (''[[Plutella xylostella]]'') is a common [[insect pest]] here.<ref name="Bt-2002" /> ''{{Visible anchor|Btk|Bacillus thuringiensis kurstaki}}'' (''[[Bacillus thuringiensis kurstaki]]'') is a commonly used insectide for Diamondback Moth control in California.<ref name="Bt-2002" /> Shelton ''et al.'', 2000 finds a high degree of natural [[genetic variation]] in [[Btk resistance]] in the state's DM population.<ref name="Bt-2002">{{cite journal |year=2002 |issue=1 |volume=47 |publisher=[[Annual Reviews (publisher)|Annual Reviews]] |issn=0066-4170 |journal=[[Annual Review of Entomology]] |first1=Juan |last1=Ferre |last2=Van Rie |first2=Jeroen |pmid=11729083 |doi=10.1146/annurev.ento.47.091201.145234 |pages=501–533 |title=Biochemistry and Genetics of Insect Resistance to ''Bacillus thuringiensis''}}</ref>

Several ''{{visible anchor|Aedes|text=[[Aedes]] spp.}}'' are present.<ref name="bluebird">{{cite journal |journal=[[Trends in Parasitology]] |issn=1471-4922 |year=2022 |publisher=[[Cell Press]] |issue=5 |volume=38 |first3=Rodrigo |first2=Nicolas |first4=Florence |first1=Thierry |last3=Almeida |last2=Sauvion |first5=Haoues |last4=Fournet |last5=Alout |last1=Lefèvre |pages=404–418 |id=[[INRAE]] HAL [https://hal.inrae.fr/hal-03615705/ hal-03615705]. [https://www.documentation.ird.fr/hor/fdi:010085134 fdi:010085134]. [[Web of Science|WOS]] 000793468800008 |pmid=35421326 |doi=10.1016/j.pt.2022.01.004 |title=The ecological significance of arthropod vectors of plant, animal, and human pathogens |s2cid=246665939 |url=https://hal.inrae.fr/hal-03615705/file/Lefevre%202022%20author%20revised%20version.pdf}}</ref> ''{{visible anchor|Aedes aegypti|text=[[Aedes aegypti|A. aegypti]]}}'' is found as an [[exotic pest]] here.<ref name="Aedes-aegypti-Global-Genetic-Diversity" /> Gloria-Soria ''et al.'', 2016 finds a significant amount of shared genetics between the population of [[Southern California|the southern part of the state]] and [[New Mexico]], [[Arizona]], and Mexico.<ref name="Aedes-aegypti-Global-Genetic-Diversity">
*{{cite journal |title=Global genetic diversity of ''Aedes aegypti'' |last1=Gloria-Soria |first1=Andrea |pmc=5123671 |pmid=27671732 |doi=10.1111/mec.13866 |pages=5377–5395 |year=2016 |publisher=[[John Wiley & Sons]] |issue=21 |volume=25 |issn=0962-1083 |first30=Jeffrey |first23=Joshua |first28=Walter |first13=Laura |first18=Maria |last17=Martins |first5=Dave |first25=Rosa |last9=Fernandez |first16=Joel |last25=Sanchez |journal=[[Molecular Ecology]] |last2=Ayala |first2=Diego |last3=Bheecarry |first3=Ambicadutt |last4=Calderon-Arguedas |first4=Olger |last5=Chadee |last6=Chiappero |first6=Marina |last7=Coetzee |first7=Maureen |last8=Elahee |first8=Khouaildi |first9=Ildefonso |last10=Kamal |first10=Hany |last11=Kamgang |first11=Basile |last12=Khater |first12=Emad |last13=Kramer |last14=Kramer |first14=Vicki |last15=Lopez-Solis |first15=Alma |last16=Lutomiah |first17=Ademir |last18=Micieli |last19=Paupy |first19=Christophe |last20=Ponlawat |first20=Alongkot |last21=Rahola |first21=Nil |last22=Rasheed |first22=Syed |last23=Richardson |last24=Saleh |first24=Amag |last26=Seixas |first26=Gonçalo |last27=Sousa |first27=Carla |last28=Tabachnick |last29=Troyo |first29=Adriana |last30=Powell|bibcode=2016MolEc..25.5377G }}
*{{cite journal |title=''Aedes aegypti'' vector competence studies: A review |doi=10.1016/j.meegid.2018.11.009 |pages=191–209 |last1=Souza-Neto |first1=Jayme A. |last2=Powell |first2=Jeffrey R. |last3=Bonizzoni |first3=Mariangela |journal=[[Infection, Genetics and Evolution]] |issn=1567-1348 |publisher=[[Elsevier]] |volume=67 |year=2019 |pmid=30465912 |pmc=8135908|bibcode=2019InfGE..67..191S }}
</ref>

''{{Visible anchor|Procambarus clarkii|text=[[Procambarus clarkii]]}}'' is an [[invasive species|invasive]] crayfish across the [[Western US]].<ref name="Invasion" /> It was first imported to a [[frog farm]] in [[San Diego County]] in 1932, and proved so successful as [[animal feed|feed]] and food that descendants were sold around the state.<ref name="Invasion" /> They escaped and now are a widespread nuisance.<ref name="Invasion">{{cite book |language=en |year=2007 |publication-place=[[Malden, MA]], USA |publisher=[[Blackwell Publishing]] |first3=Michael |first2=Martha |first1=Julie |last3=Marchetti |last2=Hoopes |last1=Lockwood |oclc=65207100 |isbn=978-1-4051-1418-9 |title=Invasion Ecology |pages=vii+304}}</ref>

''[[Lymantria dispar]]'' (spongy moth, gypsy moth) is an [[established species|established]] pest here.<ref name="surveillance" /> Epanchin-Niell ''et al.'', 2012 find that annual [[crop pest surveillance|surveillance]] costs can be easily reduced.<ref name="surveillance" /> Costs are reduced by 50% by targeting surveillance resources based on the difference in surveillance cost by location, and by the difference in [[establishment risk]] by location.<ref name="surveillance">{{cite journal |year=2017 |issue=1 |volume=55 |first4=Christopher |first3=Tim |first2=Frank |first1=Stephen |last4=Gilligan |last3=Gottwald |last2=Bosch |last1=Parnell |publisher=[[Annual Reviews (publisher)|Annual Reviews]] |pages=591–610 |title=Surveillance to Inform Control of Emerging Plant Diseases: An Epidemiological Perspective |journal=[[Annual Review of Phytopathology]] |issn=0066-4286 |doi=10.1146/annurev-phyto-080516-035334 |pmid=28637378 |s2cid=12143052|url=http://usir.salford.ac.uk/id/eprint/43149/1/Parnell%20et%20al%20_%20annurev-phyto-080516-035334.pdf }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1111/j.1461-0248.2012.01800.x |title=Optimal surveillance and eradication of invasive species in heterogeneous landscapes |year=2012 |last1=Epanchin-Niell |first1=Rebecca S. |last2=Haight |first2=Robert G. |last3=Berec |first3=Ludek |last4=Kean |first4=John M. |last5=Liebhold |first5=Andrew M. |journal=[[Ecology Letters]] |volume=15 |issue=8 |pages=803–812 |pmid=22642613|bibcode=2012EcolL..15..803E }}</ref>

[[File:Bactrocera tau dorsal.jpg|frameless | right
]]
California is known to be free of ''[[Bactrocera tau]]'' (Walker).<ref name=btaucabi>{{cite journal |year=2021 |publisher=[[CABI Digital Library]] |journal=[[CABI Compendium]] |doi=10.1079/cabicompendium.8741 |title=Bactrocera tau |s2cid=253607462}}</ref>

{{visible anchor|California red scale|Aonidiella aurantii}} (''[[Aonidiella aurantii]]'') is an [[invasive agricultural pest|invasive pest]] here.<ref name=multipathogen/> It [[Competitive displacement|competitively displaced]] a prior invader {{visible anchor|Yellow scale|Aonidiella citrina}} (''[[Aonidiella citrina|A. citrina]]'').<ref name=multipathogen/> Debach ''et al.'', 1978 finds that ''A. citrina'' is now extinct in this state due to the invasion of ''A. aurantii''.<ref name=multipathogen>{{cite journal |year=2021 |publisher=[[John Wiley & Sons, Inc.]] |doi=10.1111/ppa.13469 |doi-access=free |first3=Christophe |first2=Didier |first1=Agathe |last3=May |last2=Andrivon |last1=Dutt |title=Multi-infections, competitive interactions, and pathogen coexistence |journal=Plant Pathology |volume=71 |pages=5–22}}</ref>

The {{visible anchor|Black Vine Weevil|Otiorhynchus sulcatus}} (''[[Otiorhynchus sulcatus]]'') is mostly found in the [[Central Coast AVA]] but does rarely occur elsewhere.<ref name=bvw /> Hosts include grape<ref name=bvw /> and strawberry.<ref name="rbs" /> Creeping red fescue (''[[Festuca rubra]]'') is an [[alternate host]].<ref name=bvw>{{cite web |date=2015 |url=https://ipm.ucanr.edu/agriculture/grape/black-vine-weevil |title=Black Vine Weevil |publisher=[[Statewide IPM Program]], Agriculture and Natural Resources, University of California}}</ref>

''{{visible anchor|Otiorhynchus cribricollis|Cribrate weevil|text=[[Otiorhynchus cribricollis]]}}'' (Cribrate weevil) is common in the [[San Joaquin Valley]].<ref name="rbs"/> It is sometimes a problem in strawberry in the area.<ref name="rbs">{{Cite web |access-date=2023-02-20 |title=Agriculture |website=[[UC Statewide IPM Program]] |url=https://ipm.ucanr.edu/agriculture/strawberry/root-beetles/}}</ref>

''[[Helicoverpa zea]]'' (syn. ''Heliothis zea'') is common in several parts of the state including all strawberry growing areas.<ref name="hz"/> ''H. zea'' is especially troublesome in southern coastal California.<ref name="hz">{{Cite web |access-date=2023-02-21 |title=Agriculture |website=[[UC Statewide IPM Program]] |url=https://ipm.ucanr.edu/agriculture/strawberry/corn-earworm/}}</ref>

{{visible anchor|Cyclamen Mite}}s occur natively here.<ref name="cmpp" /> Hosts include strawberry.<ref name="cmpp" >{{Cite web |access-date=2023-02-24 |title=Agriculture |website=[[UC Statewide IPM Program]] |url=https://ipm.ucanr.edu/agriculture/strawberry/cyclamen-mite/}}</ref>

''[[Scutigerella immaculata]]'' is an [[introduced pest]] restricted to high [[moisture]] soil.<ref name="gssi" /> Hosts include strawberry.<ref name="gssi" >{{Cite web |access-date=2023-02-26 |title=Agriculture |website=[[UC Statewide IPM Program]] |url=https://ipm.ucanr.edu/agriculture/strawberry/garden-symphylans/}}</ref>

Some slugs ([[Gastropoda]] spp.) are vegetable and fruit pests here.<ref name="slug" /> Several are [[introduced pest]]s from Europe.<ref name="slug" /> Hosts include strawberry.<ref name="slug" >{{Cite web |access-date=2023-03-01 |title=Agriculture |website=[[UC Statewide IPM Program]] |url=https://ipm.ucanr.edu/agriculture/strawberry/slugs/}}</ref>

[[File:Forficula auricularia-Male-1.jpg|frameless | right
]]
[[File:Earwig and nymphs.jpg|frameless | right
]]
European Earwigs are most destructive from April to July here.<ref name="eefa" /> Hosts include strawberry.<ref name="eefa" >{{Cite web |access-date=2023-03-02 |title=Agriculture |website=[[UC Statewide IPM Program]] |url=https://ipm.ucanr.edu/agriculture/strawberry/slugs/}}</ref>

''[[Eotetranychus lewisi]]'' is found in coastal areas including [[Oxnard, California|Oxnard]] and [[Salinas, California|Salinas]].<ref name="ellsm" /> Hosts include strawberry.<ref name="ellsm" >{{Cite web |access-date=2023-03-04 |title=Agriculture |website=[[UC Statewide IPM Program]] |url=https://ipm.ucanr.edu/agriculture/strawberry/lewis-spider-mite/}}</ref>

{{Visible anchor | Agrotis ipsilon | text=''[[Agrotis ipsilon]]''}} is the most common cutworm here.<ref name="aicw" /> Hosts include strawberry.<ref name="aicw" >{{Cite web |access-date=2023-03-05 |title=Agriculture |website=[[UC Statewide IPM Program]] |url=https://ipm.ucanr.edu/agriculture/strawberry/cutworms/}}</ref>

''[[Pandemis pyrusana]]'' is present and eats the leaves of several crops.<ref name="cplr"/> Hosts include strawberry.<ref name="cplr"/>

''[[Clepsis peritana]]'' is an [[ecology|ecologically]] important [[saprovore (disambiguation)|saprovore]].<ref name="cplr" /> Later in the season it is a pest of strawberry.<ref name="cplr"/>

''[[Myzus persicae]]'' is present.<ref name="aph" /> Hosts include strawberry.<ref name="aph" />

''[[Macrosiphum euphorbiae]]'' is much larger than other aphids in California.<ref name="aph" /> Populations here have two forms, a green and a red.<ref name="aph" /> Hosts include strawberry.<ref name="aph" >{{Cite web |access-date=2023-03-07 |title=Agriculture |website=[[UC Statewide IPM Program]] |url=https://ipm.ucanr.edu/agriculture/strawberry/aphids/}}</ref>

''[[Aedes albopictus]]'' is a pest of livestock concern.<ref name="Wolbachia" /> Modified ''[[Wolbachia]]'' have been released to control this species here.<ref name="Wolbachia" >{{Cite journal |issue=1 |date=2019 |volume=53 |first3=Ary |first2=Michael |first1=Perran |last3=Hoffmann |last2=Turelli |last1=Ross |title=Evolutionary Ecology of ''Wolbachia'' Releases for Disease Control |journal=[[Annual Review of Genetics]] |publisher=[[Annual Reviews (publisher)|Annual Reviews]] |issn=0066-4197 |doi=10.1146/annurev-genet-112618-043609 |pages=93–116 |pmid=31505135 |pmc=6944334}}</ref>

[[File:20181108-APHIS-LSC-0396.jpeg|thumb | [[Osama El-Lissy|El-Lissy]], eradication ceremony
]]
The {{visible anchor|Pink Bollworm|Pectinophora gossypiella}} (''[[Pectinophora gossypiella]]'') was devastating<ref name="Management2010" >{{Cite book |year=2010 |publisher=[[Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg]] |last1=Horowitz |first1=A. |last2=Ishaaya |first2=Isaac |page=125 |title=Insect Pest Management |isbn=978-3-642-05859-2}}</ref> to cotton growers here and throughout [[Southwest United States|the southwest]].<ref name="geneflow" /> Chu ''et al.'', 1996 reports a management program in the [[Imperial Valley]] in which government imposed practices successfully reduced populations.<ref name="geneflow" />

==Weeds==
Rejmanek & Pitcairn 2002 overview 53 [[weed eradication]] campaigns in the state, and find that any infestation smaller than {{convert|2.5|acre}} was usually successfully eradicated, while anything which had already reached {{convert|2500|acre}} was essentially impossible to do.<ref name="Forests-Rangelands">{{cite book |year=2021 |publication-place=[[Cham, Switzerland]] |publisher=[[Springer International Publishing]] |pages=xlii + 455 + ill., 20 b/w + 67 col |first6=Vanessa |first5=Deborah |first3=Deborah |first1=Therese |last6=Lopez |last5=Hayes |last3=Finch |last1=Poland |last2=Patel |first2=Toral |last4=Miniat |first4=Chelcy |isbn=978-3-030-45366-4 |id={{isbn |978-3-030-45369-5}}. {{isbn |978-3-030-45367-1}} |title=Invasive Species in Forests and Rangelands of the United States}}</ref>{{rp|page=137}}

{{visible anchor|Yellow Sweetclover|Melilotus officinalis}} (''[[Melilotus officinalis]]'' L. Lam.), {{visible anchor|Chickweed|Stellaria}} (''[[Stellaria]]'' spp.), {{visible anchor|Annual Bluegrass|Poa annua}} (''[[Poa annua]]'' [[Linnaeus]]), {{visible anchor|Shepherd's Purse|Capsella bursa-pastoris}} (''[[Capsella bursa-pastoris]]'' Linnaeus Medikus), {{visible anchor|Crabgrass|Digitaria}} (various ''[[Digitaria]]'' spp.), {{visible anchor|Spotted Spurge|Euphorbia maculata}} (''[[Euphorbia maculata]]'' Linnaeus Small), and {{visible anchor|Yellow Nutsedge|Cyperus esculentus}} (''[[Cyperus esculentus]]'') are common [[weed]]s here, including in strawberry and parsley.<ref name="Stapleton-et-al-2005-bundle" /> (See {{section link||Strawberries}}, and {{section link||Parsley}}.)

{{visible anchor|Marestail|Conyza canadensis|Erigeron canadensis|Horseweed}} (Horseweed, ''[[Conyza canadensis]]'', ''Erigeron canadensis'') is a common [[native weed]] here.<ref name="Mares">
*{{cite journal |year=2018 |issue=1 |publisher=[[John Wiley & Sons Ltd]] |journal=[[Biological Reviews of the Cambridge Philosophical Society]] |issn=1464-7931 |volume=94 |pages=135–155 |last1=Hawkins |first1=Nichola J. |last2=Bass |first2=Chris |last3=Dixon |first3=Andrea |last4=Neve |first4=Paul |title=The evolutionary origins of pesticide resistance |doi=10.1111/brv.12440 |pmc=6378405 |pmid=29971903}}
*{{cite journal |last1=Délye |first1=Christophe |last2=Jasieniuk |first2=Marie |last3=Le Corre |first3=Valérie |title=Deciphering the evolution of herbicide resistance in weeds |journal=[[Trends in Genetics]] |publisher=[[Cell Press]] |volume=29 |issue=11 |year=2013 |issn=0168-9525 |doi=10.1016/j.tig.2013.06.001 |pages=649–658 |pmid=23830583|s2cid=773929 }}
*{{cite journal |last1=Okada |first1=Miki |last2=Hanson |first2=Bradley D. |last3=Hembree |first3=Kurt J. |last4=Peng |first4=Yanhui |last5=Shrestha |first5=Anil |last6=Stewart |first6=Charles Neal |last7=Wright |first7=Steven D. |last8=Jasieniuk |first8=Marie |title=Evolution and spread of glyphosate resistance in ''Conyza canadensis'' in California |journal=[[Evolutionary Applications]] |publisher=[[Blackwell Publishing]] |issn=1752-4571 |volume=6 |issue=5 |date=March 11, 2013 |doi=10.1111/eva.12061 |pages=761–777 |pmid=29387164 |pmc=5779124|bibcode=2013EvApp...6..761O }}
</ref> [[Glyphosate-resistant marestail]] first appeared in the state in the [[Central Valley, California|Central Valley]] in 2005 and this resistance spread unusually rapidly through the southern Valley thereafter.<ref name="Mares" /> Okada ''et al.'', 2013 finds several independent evolutionary events, and that these unrelated [[herbicide resistance allele|resistance alleles]] may have been passed along so quickly because ''C. canadensis'' can reproduce by [[selfing]].<ref name="Mares" /><ref name="geneflow">{{cite journal |year=2019 |publisher=[[Elsevier]] |volume=283 |first4=Sara |first1=Hugh |first2=Roberto |last4=Martin |page=106566 |last1=Beckie |last2=Busi |last3=Bagavathiannan |first3=Muthukumar V. |doi=10.1016/j.agee.2019.06.005 |issn=0167-8809 |journal=[[Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment]] |title=Herbicide resistance gene flow in weeds: Under-estimated and under-appreciated |bibcode=2019AgEE..28306566B |s2cid=196689717}}</ref> {{visible anchor|Hairy Fleabane|Conyza bonariensis|Erigeron bonariensis}} (''[[Conyza bonariensis]]'', ''Erigeron bonariensis'') is one of the major {{section link||Weeds in peach}} here.<ref name="UC-IPM-peach" /> The Okada group also studies [[glyphosate-resistant hairy fleabane|glyphosate-resistant Hairy Fleabane]].<ref name="Evo-Eco-Insight">{{cite journal |year=2019 |issue=1 |volume=223 |first=Regina |pages=68–82 |last=Baucom |publisher=[[New Phytologist Trust]] |journal=[[New Phytologist]] |s2cid=73439248 |doi=10.1111/nph.15723 |title=Evolutionary and ecological insights from herbicide-resistant weeds: what have we learned about plant adaptation, and what is left to uncover? |pmid=30710343|bibcode=2019NewPh.223...68B |hdl=2027.42/149516 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> (See also {{section link||Glyphosate}}.)

In the [[Central Valley, California|Central Valley]] the most common weeds are cool-season [[grass weed]]s ({{visible anchor|Poaceae}}), [[thistle]]s (Asteraceae), [[mustard plant|mustard]]s (Brassicaceae), [[fiddleneck]] (Boraginaceae), warm-season grass weeds, warm-season [[Cyperaceae]], [[amaranth]]s (Amaranthaceae), [[morning glory]] (Convolvulaceae), and {{visible anchor|Caltrop|Tribulus terrestris|text=caltrop}} (''[[Tribulus terrestris]]'', Zygophyllaceae).<ref name="Achmon-et-al-2018">
*{{cite journal |last1=Spang |first1=Edward S. |last2=Moreno |first2=Laura C. |last3=Pace |first3=Sara A. |last4=Achmon |first4=Yigal |last5=Donis-Gonzalez |first5=Irwin |last6=Gosliner |first6=Wendi A. |last7=Jablonski-Sheffield |first7=Madison P. |last8=Momin |first8=Md. Abdul |last9=Quested |first9=Tom E. |last10=Winans |first10=Kiara S. |last11=Tomich |first11=Thomas P. |title=Food Loss and Waste: Measurement, Drivers, and Solutions |journal=[[Annual Review of Environment and Resources]] |publisher=[[Annual Reviews (publisher)|Annual Reviews]] |volume=44 |issue=1 |date=October 17, 2019 |issn=1543-5938 |doi=10.1146/annurev-environ-101718-033228 |pages=117–156 |s2cid=202294383}}
*{{cite journal |last1=Khadka |first1=Ram B. |last2=Cardina |first2=John |last3=Miller |first3=Sally A |title=Perspectives on Anaerobic Soil Disinfestation for Weed Management |journal=[[Journal of Integrated Pest Management]] |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |volume=12 |issue=1 |date=January 1, 2021 |issn=2155-7470 |doi=10.1093/jipm/pmab027 |pages=1–11 |s2cid=239736276|doi-access=free }}
*{{cite journal |last1=Achmon |first1=Yigal |last2=Sade |first2=Nir |last3=Wilhelmi |first3=María del Mar Rubio |last4=Fernández-Bayo |first4=Jesus D. |last5=Harrold |first5=Duff R. |last6=Stapleton |first6=James J. |last7=VanderGheynst |first7=Jean S. |last8=Blumwald |first8=Eduardo |last9=Simmons |first9=Christopher W. |title=Effects of Short-Term Biosolarization Using Mature Compost and Industrial Tomato Waste Amendments on the Generation and Persistence of Biocidal Soil Conditions and Subsequent Tomato Growth |journal=[[Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry]] |publisher=[[American Chemical Society]] |volume=66 |issue=22 |date=May 15, 2018 |issn=0021-8561 |doi=10.1021/acs.jafc.8b00424 |pages=5451–5461 |s2cid=21712741 |pmid=29763301|bibcode=2018JAFC...66.5451A }}
</ref> Achmon ''et al.'', 2018 dramatically lowered [[seed bank]] viability, [[biomass]], and [[plant density|density]] of all these weeds, and improved tomato yield using [[biosolarization]] using tomato and grape crop waste.<ref name="Achmon-et-al-2018" />

{{visible anchor|Cape-ivy|Delairea odorata}} (''[[Delairea odorata]]'') is an [[invasive weed]] originally from the [[Drakensberg Mountains]] in South Africa and Swaziland.<ref name="Delairea-odorata-bundle">*{{cite report |title=Weed Risk Assessment for ''Delairea odorata'' Lem. (Asteraceae) – Cape ivy |author=(([[Plant Protection and Quarantine]], Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service, United States Department of Agriculture)) |date=September 24, 2013 |url=http://www.aphis.usda.gov/plant_health/plant_pest_info/weeds/downloads/wra/Delairea_odorata_WRA.pdf |id=[[Invasive Species Compendium|CABI ISC]] [http://www.cabi.org/isc/abstract/20143118470 20143118470] |access-date=June 23, 2022 |archive-date=January 23, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220123050028/https://www.aphis.usda.gov/plant_health/plant_pest_info/weeds/downloads/wra/Delairea_odorata_WRA.pdf |url-status=dead }}
*{{cite web |title=''Delairea odorata'' Profile |website=[[California Invasive Plant Council]] |date=March 20, 2017 |url=http://www.cal-ipc.org/plants/profile/delairea-odorata-profile/ |access-date=June 23, 2022 }}
*{{cite web |title=''Delairea odorata'' |website=[[Calflora]] |url=http://www.calflora.org/app/taxon?crn=9623 |access-date=June 23, 2022 }}
*{{cite web |title=''Delairea odorata'' (Cape ivy) |website=[[Centre for Agriculture and Bioscience International|CABI]] |date=November 24, 2019 |url=http://www.cabi.org/isc/datasheet/18265 |access-date=June 23, 2022 }}
*{{cite web |title=''Delairea odorata'' |website=[[University and Jepson Herbaria]] |date=June 23, 2022 |url=http://ucjeps.berkeley.edu/eflora/eflora_display.php?tid=80449 |access-date=June 23, 2022 }}
*{{cite web |title=''Delairea odorata'' |website=[[United States Fish and Wildlife Service]] |url=http://www.fws.gov/species/cape-ivy-delairea-odorata |access-date=June 23, 2022 }}
*{{cite web |title=cape ivy, ''Delairea odorata'' Asterales: Asteraceae |website=[[Invasive.Org]] |url=http://www.invasive.org/browse/subinfo.cfm?sub=5529 |access-date=June 23, 2022 }}</ref> It was first observed here in 1892 and has since spread to every coast of the state, and into one coastal county of [[Oregon]].<ref name="Delairea-odorata-bundle" /> Two organisms have been found in its native range which could be introduced here as controls, see ''{{section link||Digitivalva delaireae}}'' and ''{{section link||Cercospora delaireae}}''.<ref name="Delairea-odorata-bundle" />

{{visible anchor|Sea Beet|Beta vulgaris subsp. maritima|Wild beet}} ([[Sea beet|''Beta vulgaris'' subsp. ''maritima'']]) and ''{{visible anchor|Beta macrocarpa|text=[[Beta macrocarpa]]}}'' are [[introduced weed]]s here.<ref name="Beta" /><ref name="domestic" /> The [[allozyme]] analysis of Bartsch & Ellstrand 1999 shows free [[gene flow]] between these two and cultivated [[beet]].<ref name="Beta">{{cite book |year=2005 |language=en |publication-place=[[Rome]], Italy |last1=Spooner |first1=David |last2=Treuren |first2=Rob van |last3=Vicente |first3=M. C. de |title=Molecular markers for genebank management |publisher=[[International Plant Genetic Resources Institute]] |isbn=978-92-9043-684-3 |oclc=136956590 |pages=viii+126 |hdl=10113/11672 |s2cid=83426985 |id=[[National Agricultural Digital Library Collection|NADLC]]# [http://naldc.nal.usda.gov/catalog/11672 11672]. [[AGRIS]] id [http://agris.fao.org/agris-search/search.do?recordID=QJ2007000031 QJ2007000031]. [[Bioversity]] [https://www.bioversityinternational.org/e-library/publications/detail/molecular-markers-for-genebank-management/ PDF]. [[CGIAR]] {{hdl |10568/104976}}}}</ref> Wild beet is only significant in small grains in [[Imperial Valley|Imperial]], where dicamba and 2,4-D are necessary.<ref name="smallgrunusualweed">{{cite web |access-date=October 16, 2022 |date=February 2009 |id=3466 |first3=L. F. |first2=S. D. |first1=W. M. |last3=Jackson |last2=Wright |last1=Canevari |title=Nematodes / Almond / Agriculture: Pest Management |url=https://www2.ipm.ucanr.edu/agriculture/small-grains/Special-Weed-Problems/ |website=[[University of California Integrated Pest Management|UC Integrated Pest Management]] |publisher=UC Agriculture}}</ref> See also {{section link||Small grains}}.

{{visible anchor|Palmer Amaranth|Amaranthus palmeri}} (''[[Amaranthus palmeri]]'') was first discovered in [[San Diego County]] by [[Sereno Watson]] in 1876.<ref name="Watson" /> It has since spread elsewhere, developed the worst [[multiple herbicide resistance|multiresistance]] in the world, and become one of the most notorious crop [[weed]]s in the world.<ref name="Watson">
*{{cite book |date=2010 |publisher=[[John Wiley & Sons Ltd]] |last=Nandula |first=Vijay K. |title=Glyphosate Resistance in Crops and Weeds: History, Development, and Management |publication-place=[[New York, NY]] |isbn=978-1-118-04354-7 |oclc=992891185}}{{rp|page=195}}
*{{cite journal |last=Watson |volume=12 |pages=246–278 |publisher=[[American Academy of Arts & Sciences]] |journal=[[Proceedings of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences]] |year=1876 |first=Sereno |author-link=Sereno Watson |title=Descriptions of New Species of Plants, with Revisions of Certain Genera |doi=10.2307/25138455 |issn=0199-9818 |jstor=25138455}}
</ref> In California it is found in all but the northernmost counties.<ref name="Calflora">{{cite web |access-date=September 17, 2022 |date=2022 |website=[[Calflora]] |url=https://www.calflora.org/app/taxon?crn=281 |title=''Amaranthus palmeri'' Calflora}}</ref>

{{visible anchor|California wild radish}} (radish (''[[Raphanus sativus]]'') × Jointed charlock (''[[Raphanus raphanistrum|R. raphanistrum]]''))<ref name="gonewild">{{cite journal |year=2010 |publisher=[[Blackwell Publishing]] |volume=3 |first8=Caroline |issue=5–6 |last6=Yao |first1=Norman |first6=Li |first2=Sylvia |last5=Burger |first4=Joanne |first3=Janet |last8=Ridley |last1=Ellstrand |last2=Heredia |last3=Leak-Garcia |last4=Heraty |first5=Jutta C. |last7=Nohzadeh-Malakshah |first7=Sahar |journal=[[Evolutionary Applications]] |issn=1752-4571 |title=Crops gone wild: evolution of weeds and invasives from domesticated ancestors |doi=10.1111/j.1752-4571.2010.00140.x |pages=494–504 |pmid=25567942 |pmc=3352506|bibcode=2010EvApp...3..494E }}</ref> has replaced all of its ancestral populations in the state.<ref name="domestic">{{cite journal |year=2021 |publisher=[[Cell Press]] |volume=26 |issue=6 Special Issue |last3=Fan |last2=Lao |last1=Wu |first1=Dongya |first2=Sangting |first3=Longjiang |pages=560–574 |journal=[[Trends in Plant Science]] |issn=1360-1385 |title=De-Domestication: An Extension of Crop Evolution |doi=10.1016/j.tplants.2021.02.003 |pmid=33648850 |bibcode=2021TPS....26..560W |s2cid=232089929}}</ref>

Di Tomaso and Healy 2007 find ''[[Chenopodium album]]'' requires years of continuous [[weed management|management]] for any significant [[seedbank]] reduction.<ref name="volume2" />

==Pathogens==
===''Xylella fastidiosa''===
''[[Xylella fastidiosa|X.{{nbsp}}fastidiosa]]'' was first discovered here by {{visible anchor|Newton B. Pierce|Newton Pierce}} (1856–1916) in 1892.<ref name="Baldi-Porta-2017">{{cite journal |last1=Baldi |first1=Paolo |last2=La Porta |first2=Nicola |title=''Xylella fastidiosa'': Host Range and Advance in Molecular Identification Techniques |journal=[[Frontiers in Plant Science]] |volume=8 |date=June 8, 2017 |page=944 |doi=10.3389/fpls.2017.00944 |pmid=28642764 |pmc=5462928 |doi-access=free}}<!--- Published by Frontiers but cited by the 2019 Annual Review by Morris & Moury, ... ---></ref><ref name="Sicard-et-al-2018">{{cite journal |last1=Sicard |first1=Anne |last2=Zeilinger |first2=Adam R. |last3=Vanhove |first3=Mathieu |last4=Schartel |first4=Tyler E. |last5=Beal |first5=Dylan J. |last6=Daugherty |first6=Matthew P. |last7=Almeida |first7=Rodrigo P.P. |title=''Xylella fastidiosa'': Insights into an Emerging Plant Pathogen |journal=[[Annual Review of Phytopathology]] |publisher=[[Annual Reviews (publisher)|Annual Reviews]] |volume=56 |issue=1 |date=August 25, 2018 |issn=0066-4286 |doi=10.1146/annurev-phyto-080417-045849 |pages=181–202 |pmid=29889627 |s2cid=48353386 |url=https://hal.inrae.fr/hal-02791754/file/Publis18-bgpi-028_sicard_xyllela_1.pdf}}</ref> It has ever since remained a constant pathogen of many crops here,<ref name="Moralejo-et-al-2019-bundle" /> including grape, almond, citrus, and oleander.<ref name="diagnostic-SSRs-Xf" />

====Pierce's Disease====
The CDFA's {{visible anchor|Pierce's Disease Control Program}} coordinates response and research in the state.<ref name="PD-Control-Program">{{cite web |website=[[California Department of Food and Agriculture]] |title=Pierce's Disease Control Program |url=http://www.cdfa.ca.gov/pdcp/ |access-date=July 6, 2022}}</ref> Alston ''et al.'', 2013 estimates that PD cost the state $92m in 2013<ref name="Safeguard-Specialty" /> and over Tumber ''et al.'', 2014 estimates $104m annually in 2014.<ref name="Tumber-et-al-2014" /> Burbank estimates the cost to be $100m annually by 2022.<ref name="cabixf">{{cite journal |year=2022 |volume=17 |issue=21 |last=Burbank |first=Lindsey |doi=10.1079/cabireviews202217021 |title=Threat of ''Xylella fastidiosa'' and options for mitigation in infected plants |publisher=[[Centre for Agriculture and Bioscience International|CABI]] |journal=[[CABI Reviews]] |s2cid=251514273|doi-access=free }}</ref>

GWSS remains a common vector of PD and as such is a severe drag on the entire continent's [[wine grape]] and [[table grape]] pricing and supply.<ref name="Redak-et-al-2004" /> In the [[Napa Valley|Napa-]] and [[Sonoma Valley|Sonoma-]] Valleys and other such costal AVAs PD mostly occurs in hotspots adjascent to small water flows.<ref name="Hopkins-Purcell-2002">{{cite journal |last1=Hopkins |first1=D. L. |last2=Purcell |first2=A. H. |title=''Xylella fastidiosa'': Cause of Pierce's Disease of Grapevine and Other Emergent Diseases |journal=[[Plant Disease (journal)|Plant Disease]] |publisher=[[American Phytopathological Society]] |volume=86 |issue=10 |year=2002 |issn=0191-2917 |doi=10.1094/pdis.2002.86.10.1056 |pages=1056–1066 |s2cid=73462436 |pmid=30818496}}</ref> These areas are defined by small streams and ornamental irrigation.<ref name="Hopkins-Purcell-2002" /> These are favorable habitat for the BGSS.<ref name="Hopkins-Purcell-2002" /> Lin ''et al.'', 2005 provides SSRs for differentiating between the state's various strains infecting grape and other crops<ref name="diagnostic-SSRs-Xf" /> and Lin ''et al.'', 2013 for grape-infecting strains here and in Texas.<ref name="Baldi-Porta-2017" />

The BGSS is known to thrive in higher temperatures and PD epidemics are more severe in hotter years, and there is evidence that [[global warming]] is increasing BGSS transmission of PD here.<ref name="Climate-PD" /> Larger data sets are needed for stronger confirmation.<ref name="Climate-PD">{{cite magazine |access-date=July 5, 2022 |date=December 2019 |magazine=[[Wine Business Monthly]] |first1=M.P. |last1=Daugherty |first2=M. |last2=Cooper |first3=R. |last3=Smith |first4=L. |last4=Varela |first5=R. |last5=Almeida |title=Has Climate Contributed to a Pierce's Disease Resurgence in North Coast Vineyards? |url=https://www.winebusiness.com/wbm/?go=getArticleSignIn&dataId=222327}}</ref>

There are two major divisions here, a lineage from [[Bakersfield]] and [[Santa Barbara, California|Santa Barbara]] and another from [[Temecula]] and [[northern California|the north]].<ref name="Vanhove-et-al-2020-bundle" /> Within the northern areas there is lower [[gene flow]], probably due to the [[Mayacamas Mountains]].<ref name="Vanhove-et-al-2020-bundle">
*{{cite journal |last1=Straub |first1=Christina |last2=Colombi |first2=Elena |last3=McCann |first3=Honour C. |title=Population Genomics of Bacterial Plant Pathogens |journal=[[Phytopathology (journal)|Phytopathology]] |publisher=[[American Phytopathological Society]] |volume=111 |issue=1 |year=2021 |issn=0031-949X |doi=10.1094/phyto-09-20-0412-rvw |pages=23–31 |pmid=33179999 |s2cid=226310344|doi-access=free }}
*{{cite journal |last1=Vanhove |first1=Mathieu |last2=Sicard |first2=Anne |last3=Ezennia |first3=Jeffery |last4=Leviten |first4=Nina |last5=Almeida |first5=Rodrigo P.P. |title=Population structure and adaptation of a bacterial pathogen in California grapevines |journal=[[Applied and Environmental Microbiology]] |publisher=[[American Society for Microbiology]] |volume=22 |issue=7 |date=March 12, 2020 |issn=1462-2912 |doi=10.1111/1462-2920.14965 |pages=2625–2638 |pmid=32114707 |bibcode=2020EnvMi..22.2625V |s2cid=211727090}}
</ref>

Zhang ''et al.'', 2011 compares a PD strain to [[EB92-1]] and finds that they are surprisingly similar.<ref name="Control-similar-PD" /> EB92-1 is a [[biological control|biocontrol]] strain discovered by Hopkins in 1992 and published as Hopkins 2005.<ref name="Control-similar-PD" /> It is originally from elderberry (''[[Sambucus]]'' spp.) and is highly persistent on grapevine but is [[asymptomatic]].<ref name="Control-similar-PD" /> Zhang finds that the EB92-1 genome is a [[proper subset]] of the {{Visible anchor|Temecula1}} genome, lacking 11 missing [[gene]]s, 10 of which are [[gene prediction|predicted]] to be [[pathogenicity factor]]s.<ref name="Control-similar-PD">
*{{cite book |date=2014 |first2=Ann |pages=x+278 |first1=Dennis |publication-place=[[Heidelberg]] |publisher=[[Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg]] |last1=Gross |last2=Lichens-Park |last3=Kole |isbn=978-3-642-55378-3 |oclc=881817015 |id={{isbn |978-3-642-55377-6}} |first3=Chittaranjan |title=Genomics of plant-associated bacteria}}
*{{cite journal |year=2011 |issue=19 |volume=193 |last6=Gabriel |first5=Donald |last3=Kumar |last1=Zhang |last5=Hopkins |first6=Dean |publisher=[[American Society for Microbiology]] |issn=0021-9193 |journal=[[Journal of Bacteriology]] |pages=5576–5577 |first1=Shujian |last2=Flores-Cruz |first2=Zomary |first3=Dibyendu |last4=Chakrabarty |first4=Pranjib |pmid=21914886 |pmc=3187439 |s2cid=7068164 |doi=10.1128/jb.05430-11 |title=The ''Xylella fastidiosa'' Biocontrol Strain EB92-1 Genome Is Very Similar and Syntenic to Pierce's Disease Strains}}
</ref>

Vanhove ''et al.'', 2020 elucidates the current genetic situation of PD strains here, including [[population structure (genetics)|population structure]] and [[crop pathogen evolution|their evolution]].<ref name="lit-search-2020-Xf">{{cite journal |year=2021 |issue=6 |volume=19 |publisher=[[John Wiley and Sons Ltd]] |first4=Massimiliano |first3=Luca |first2=Davide |first1=Alice |issn=1831-4732 |journal=[[EFSA Journal]] |last1=Delbianco |last2=Gibin |last3=Pasinato |last4=Morelli |s2cid=235671792 |doi=10.2903/j.efsa.2021.6674 |title=Update of the ''Xylella'' spp. host plant database – systematic literature search up to 31 December 2020 |pages=e06674 |pmid=34188716 |pmc=8220458}}</ref>

====''Xf'' in stonefruit====
''Xf'' is also significant in stonefruit here, causing [[Almond leaf scorch disease]] and other diseases.<ref name="Moralejo-et-al-2019-bundle">
*{{cite journal |last1=Moralejo |first1=E. |last2=Borràs |first2=D. |last3=Gomila |first3=M. |last4=Montesinos |first4=M. |last5=Adrover |first5=F. |last6=Juan |first6=A. |last7=Nieto |first7=A. |last8=Olmo |first8=D. |last9=Seguí |first9=G. |last10=Landa |first10=B. B. |title=Insights into the epidemiology of Pierce's disease in vineyards of Mallorca, Spain |journal=[[Plant Pathology (journal)|Plant Pathology]] |publisher=[[Wiley-Blackwell]] |volume=68 |issue=8 |date=August 7, 2019 |issn=0032-0862 |doi=10.1111/ppa.13076 |pages=1458–1471 |s2cid=199641165 |url=https://zenodo.org/record/3560221}}
*{{cite journal |publisher=[[John Wiley & Sons, Inc.]] |last1=Delbianco |first1=Alice |last2=Gibin |first2=Davide |last3=Pasinato |first3=Luca |last4=Morelli |first4=Massimiliano |title=Update of the ''Xylella'' spp. host plant database – systematic literature search up to 31 December 2020 |journal=[[EFSA Journal]] |volume=19 |issue=6 |year=2021 |pages=e06674 |issn=1831-4732 |doi=10.2903/j.efsa.2021.6674 |pmid=34188716 |pmc=8220458 |s2cid=235671792}}
</ref><ref name="Baldi-Porta-2017" /> (See also {{section link||Almonds}}.) ''Xf'' isolates [[CFBP8071]] and [[M23 (Xylella fastidiosa)|M23]] are common on almond here.<ref name="Moralejo-et-al-2019-bundle" /> Moralejo ''et al.'', 2019 shed some light on the European invasion of this pathogen.<ref name="Moralejo-et-al-2019-bundle" /> Their analysis shows these isolates have a 99.4% [[nucleotide]] identity with those on grape in the introduced range {{ndash}} and more generally, these isolates, a European [[cherry]] infection, and PD isolates from both areas have a high degree of relatedness.<ref name="Moralejo-et-al-2019-bundle" /> Chen ''et al.'', 2005 provides [[PCR primer]]s, Lin ''et al.'', 2015 [[Simple Sequence Repeat]]s (SSRs), and Chen ''et al.'', 2010 the first [[genome sequence]] for common almond-infecting strains here.<ref name="Baldi-Porta-2017" /> Lin ''et al.'', 2005 provides SSRs for differentiating strains from almond from various other strains.<ref name="diagnostic-SSRs-Xf" /> While almond and plum develop [[leaf scorch]] (see also {{section link||Plums}}), Ledbetter & Rogers 2009 find that peach does not.<ref name="Baldi-Porta-2017" />

Besides Pierce's Disease, the glassy-winged sharpshooter also vectors ''Xf'' among stonefruit and so its arrival threatens the world's almond supply (see {{section link||Glassy-winged sharpshooter}} and {{section link||Stonefruit}}).<ref name="Redak-et-al-2004" />

====''Xf'' of citrus====
Lin ''et al.'', 2005 provides [[Simple Sequence Repeat]]s (SSRs) which distinguish California's {{visible anchor|Citrus Variegated Chlorosis|text=[[citrus variegated chlorosis|Citrus Variegated Chlorosis]]}} strains from almond, oleander, and PD strains.<ref name="diagnostic-SSRs-Xf" />

====Other ''Xf'' infections====
''Xf'' has many other hosts. ''[[Chitalpa tashkentensis]]'' is a common [[landscaping]] plant here and elsewhere in the southwest that is also a host.<ref name="Baldi-Porta-2017" /> Randall ''et al.'', 2009 propose {{visible anchor|Xylella fastidiosa subsp. tashke|text=the subspecies ''tashke''}} for these strains but it remains unclear whether this is a distinct subspecies and whether it endures in the overall evolutionary course of ''Xf'' strains.<ref name="Baldi-Porta-2017" /> Hernandez-Martinez ''et al.'', 2007 find {{visible anchor|Xylella fastidiosa subsp. sandyi|text=the subspecies ''sandyi''}} causes disease of Oleander, ''[[Jacaranda]]'' spp., [[daylily]], and [[magnolia]].<ref name="Baldi-Porta-2017" />

Raju 1983 finds ''Xf'' without symptoms on wild ''[[Carneocephala fulgida]]'', ''[[Draeculacephala minerva]]'', the Blue-Green Sharpshooter (BGSS, ''[[Graphocephala atropunctata]]'', a [[vector (epidemiology)|vector]]), ''[[Helochara]] [[Helochara delta|delta]]'', ''[[Pagaronia tredecimpunctata]]'', and ''[[Philaenus spumarius]]''.<ref name="Baldi-Porta-2017" /> Purcell & Saunders 1999 find infections in plants common to [[riparian zone]]s here often are not motile in the host and spontaneously improve.<ref name="Baldi-Porta-2017" />

===''Botrytis cinerea''===

[[File:Botrytis on strawberries.png|frameless | right | alt=''[[Botrytis cinerea]]'' of strawberry]]

[[File:Sonoma clusters showing signs of Botrytis (noble rot).jpg|frameless | right | alt=''[[Botrytis cinerea]]'' on grape, [[Sonoma County]]]]

Various [[strain (biology)|strain]]s of {{visible anchor|Gray mold|Botrytis cinerea|text=gray mold}} (''[[Botrytis cinerea]]'') are a constant presence in the state's [[horticulture]], especially afflicting strawberry<ref name="Within-Season-Straw-California">
*{{cite journal |last1=Cosseboom |first1=Scott D. |last2=Ivors |first2=Kelly L. |last3=Schnabel |first3=Guido |last4=Bryson |first4=Patricia K. |last5=Holmes |first5=Gerald J. |title=Within-Season Shift in Fungicide Resistance Profiles of ''Botrytis cinerea'' in California Strawberry Fields |journal=[[Plant Disease (journal)|Plant Disease]] |publisher=[[American Phytopathological Society]] |volume=103 |issue=1 |year=2019 |issn=0191-2917 |doi=10.1094/pdis-03-18-0406-re |pages=59–64 |s2cid=205345358 |pmid=30422743|doi-access=free }}
*{{cite journal |last1=Petrasch |first1=Stefan |last2=Knapp |first2=Steven J. |last3=van Kan |first3=Jan A. L. |last4=Blanco-Ulate |first4=Barbara |title=Grey mould of strawberry, a devastating disease caused by the ubiquitous necrotrophic fungal pathogen ''Botrytis cinerea'' |journal=[[Molecular Plant Pathology]] |publisher=[[Wiley-Blackwell]] |volume=20 |issue=6 |date=April 4, 2019 |issn=1464-6722 |doi=10.1111/mpp.12794 |pages=877–892 |s2cid=93002697 |pmid=30945788 |pmc=6637890 |author2-link=Steven J. Knapp}}
*{{cite journal |year=2021 |publisher=[[Elsevier]] |volume=179 |first3=Sebastien |last1=Sare |first1=Abdoul Razack |last2=Jijakli |first2=M. Haissam |last3=Massart |title=Microbial ecology to support integrative efficacy improvement of biocontrol agents for postharvest diseases management |journal=[[Postharvest Biology and Technology]] |issn=0925-5214 |doi=10.1016/j.postharvbio.2021.111572 |page=111572 |s2cid=236245543}}
</ref> and grape.<ref name="Romanazzi-et-al-2016">{{cite journal |last1=Romanazzi |first1=Gianfranco |last2=Smilanick |first2=Joseph L. |last3=Feliziani |first3=Erica |last4=Droby |first4=Samir |title=Integrated management of postharvest gray mold on fruit crops |journal=[[Postharvest Biology and Technology]] |publisher=[[Elsevier]] |volume=113 |year=2016 |issn=0925-5214 |doi=10.1016/j.postharvbio.2015.11.003 |pages=69–76 |hdl=11566/229814 |s2cid=86200880|hdl-access=free }}</ref> (See {{section link||Strawberries}} and {{section link||Grapes}}.)

Fungicides are used multiple times per seasons and as a result [[fungicide resistance|resistance]] to almost every [[mode of action]]<ref name="frrot">{{Cite web |access-date=2023-02-23 |title=Agriculture |website=[[UC Statewide IPM Program]] |url=https://ipm.ucanr.edu/agriculture/strawberry/botrytis-fruit-rot/}}</ref> is common.<ref name="Within-Season-Straw-California" /> Cosseboom ''et al.'', 2019 finds the proportion of resistant isolates increased within a single season in [[conventional agriculture|conventional]] but not [[organic agriculture|organic]].<ref name="Within-Season-Straw-California" /> This shows that evolution is driven by usage in this crop.<ref name="Within-Season-Straw-California" />

[[Fungicide resistance allele|Alleles responsible]] include the ''{{visible anchor|erg27}}'' alleles {{visible anchor|F196C}}, {{visible anchor|F412I}}, and {{visible anchor|F412S}}; ''{{visible anchor|bos1}}'' alleles {{visible anchor|I356N}}, {{visible anchor|I365N}}, and {{visible anchor|I365S}}; the {{visible anchor|Botrytis cinerea β-tubulin|text=[[β-tubulin]]}} allele {{visible anchor|E198A}} (which Hu ''et al.'' 2016 finds has no [[fitness penalty]]); the ''{{visible anchor|Botrytis cinerea cytb|text=cytb}}'' allele {{visible anchor|G143A|text=[[G143A]]}} (found by Veloukas ''et al.'', 2014 to have no [[fitness penalty]]); the ''{{visible anchor|mrr1}}'' allele {{visible anchor|R351C}} and the ''mrr1'' deletion event {{visible anchor|ΔL497}} (also known as {{visible anchor|MDR1h}} and found only in {{visible anchor|Botrytis group S|text=''Botrytis'' group S}}); and ''{{visible anchor|sdhB}}'' alleles {{visible anchor|H272R}}, {{visible anchor|H272Y}}, {{visible anchor|N230I}}, and {{visible anchor|P225F}} (the only one conferring [[resistance to isofetamid]], [[cross-resistance|also confers other resistance]] – [[resistance to penthiopyrad|to penthiopyrad]], [[resistance to fluopyram|to fluopyram]], and [[resistance to boscalid|to boscalid]] – and associated by Hu ''et al.'', 2016 with [[resistance to fluxapyroxad]]).<ref name="Within-Season-Straw-California" /> The analysis of Cosseboom ''et al.'', 2019 explains 93.8% of resistance by already-known alleles discovered by Banno ''et al.'', 2008, Ma ''et al.'', 2007, Grabke ''et al.'', 2013, Kretschmer ''et al.'', 2009, Dowling ''et al.'', 2017, Fernández-Ortuño ''et al.'', 2012, Amiri ''et al.'', 2014, and Yin ''et al.'', 2011, so very little is due to experimental error, unknown physiological effects, or undiscovered alleles.<ref name="Within-Season-Straw-California" /> (See {{section link||Isofetamid}}, {{section link||Fluopyram}}, and {{section link||Boscalid}}.)

Organic strawberry ranches experience very active genetic transfer with conventional strawberry and as a result they have high proportions of resistance.<ref name="Within-Season-Straw-California" /> Cosseboom ''et al.'', 2019 finds that conventional fields undergo within-season [[resistance evolution (disambiguation)|resistance evolution]], while organic does not, demonstrating that they are indeed not using the fungicides they claim to not use, and that genetic transfer is not so rapid as to change the situation in a field that quickly.<ref name="Within-Season-Straw-California" />

Ma & Michailides 2005 developed a [[microsatellite primed PCR]] (MP-PCR) for [[genetic diversity]] in this fungus, especially for populations in this state.<ref name="Ma-Michailides-2005-PCR">
*{{cite book |last1=Fillinger |first1=Sabine |last2=Elad |first2=Yigal |title=''Botrytis'' {{emdash}} the Fungus, the Pathogen and its Management in Agricultural Systems |publication-place=[[Cham, Switzerland]] |date=2015 |isbn=978-3-319-23371-0 |oclc=932622561 |pages=x+486}} {{isbn|978-3-319-23370-3}}.
*{{cite journal |last1=Williamson |first1=Brian |last2=Tudzynski |first2=Bettina |last3=Tudzynski |first3=Paul |last4=van Kan |first4=Jan A. L. |title=''Botrytis cinerea'': the cause of grey mould disease |journal=[[Molecular Plant Pathology]] |publisher=[[Wiley-Blackwell]] |volume=8 |issue=5 |year=2007 |issn=1464-6722 |doi=10.1111/j.1364-3703.2007.00417.x |pages=561–580 |s2cid=25802082 |pmid=20507522}}
*{{cite journal |last1=Ma |first1=Zhonghua |last2=Michailides |first2=Themis J. |title=Genetic Structure of ''Botrytis cinerea'' Populations from Different Host Plants in California |journal=[[Plant Disease (journal)|Plant Disease]] |publisher=[[American Phytopathological Society]] |volume=89 |issue=10 |year=2005 |issn=0191-2917 |doi=10.1094/pd-89-1083 |pages=1083–1089 |s2cid=73489328 |pmid=30791276}}
</ref> {{visible anchor|Strawberry Botrytis leaf spot}} was first discovered in 2018 in [[Santa Maria, California|Santa Maria]] and reported by Mansouripour & Holmes 2020.<ref name="Singh-et-al-2021">
*{{cite book |last1=Singh |first1=Prem Pratap |last2=Kumar |first2=Akshay |last3=Gupta |first3=Vishal |last4=Prakash |first4=Bhanu |title=Food Security and Plant Disease Management |chapter=1 Recent advancement in plant disease management |publisher=[[Woodhead Publishing|Woodhead]] ([[Elsevier]]) |year=2021 |doi=10.1016/b978-0-12-821843-3.00012-x |pages=1–18 |isbn=9780128218433 |s2cid=234210229}}
*{{cite journal |last1=Mansouripour |first1=S. |last2=Holmes |first2=G. J. |title=First Report of ''Botrytis cinerea'' Causing Leaf Spot on Strawberry in California |journal=[[Plant Disease (journal)|Plant Disease]] |publisher=[[American Phytopathological Society]] |volume=104 |issue=6 |year=2020 |issn=0191-2917 |doi=10.1094/pdis-06-19-1287-pdn |pages=1866 |s2cid=213497016|doi-access=free }}
</ref> ''Bc'' was not previously known to produce a [[leaf spot]] phenotype in strawberry.<ref name="Singh-et-al-2021" />

In table grape there is a limit of 0.5% {{endash}} table grapes can only be shipped if an allotment contains 0.5% or less of ''Bc''-infected berries.<ref name="Romanazzi-et-al-2016" /> For one treatment option for grape, see {{section link||Ozone}}.<ref name="Romanazzi-et-al-2016" />

Shao ''et al.'', 2021 find [[azoxystrobin resistance]] is very common in this [[population]].<ref name="molecularcharacterization"/> They find it is much more common than in China where azoxystrobin is almost unknown.<ref name="molecularcharacterization">
*{{cite journal |year=2009 |issue=2 |volume=93 |publisher=[[Elsevier BV]] |pages=72–76 |last1=Jiang |first1=Jinhua |last2=Ding |first2=Laisong |last3=Michailides |first3=Themis J. |last4=Li |first4=Hongye |last5=Ma |first5=Zhonghua |title=Molecular characterization of field azoxystrobin-resistant isolates of ''Botrytis cinerea'' |journal=[[Pesticide Biochemistry and Physiology]] |issn=0048-3575 |doi=10.1016/j.pestbp.2008.11.004|bibcode=2009PBioP..93...72J }}
This review cites this research.
*{{cite journal |year=2021 |issue=3 |volume=111 |pages=455–463 |last1=Shao |first1=Wenyong |last2=Zhao |first2=Youfu |last3=Ma |first3=Zhonghua |title=Advances in Understanding Fungicide Resistance in ''Botrytis cinerea'' in China |publisher=[[American Phytopathological Society]] |doi=10.1094/phyto-07-20-0313-ia |journal=[[Phytopathology (journal)|Phytopathology]] |pmid=33174825 |s2cid=226301725 |issn=0031-949X|doi-access=free }}
</ref>

''B. cinerea'' is a common cause of [[Post-harvest losses (fruit)|postharvest losses]] in this industry.<ref name="smartsustainable" /> Due to the need for long [[shelf life]] in the California industry – because target markets include the whole continent – and the low moisture growing environments, Petrasch ''et al.'', 2021 find [[genomic selection]] for strawberry resistance is highly successful.<ref name="smartsustainable" /> In other environments and markets however this is not expected to be as simple.<ref name="smartsustainable">
*{{cite journal |year=2022 |issue=5 |volume=111 |publisher=[[John Wiley & Sons Ltd.]] |pages=1238–1251 |last1=Senger |first1=Elisa |last2=Osorio |first2=Sonia |last3=Olbricht |first3=Klaus |last4=Shaw |first4=Paul |last5=Denoyes |first5=Beatrice |last6=Davik |first6=Jahn |last7=Predieri |first7=Stefano |last8=Karhu |first8=Saila |last9=Raubach |first9=Sebastian |last10=Lippi |first10=Nico |last11=Höfer |first11=Monika |last12=Cockerton |first12=Helen |last13=Pradal |first13=Christophe |last14=Kafkas |first14=Ebru |last15=Litthauer |first15=Suzanne |last16=Amaya |first16=Iraida |last17=Usadel |first17=Bjorn |last18=Mezzetti |first18=Bruno |title=Towards smart and sustainable development of modern berry cultivars in Europe |journal=[[The Plant Journal]] |issn=0960-7412 |doi=10.1111/tpj.15876 |pmid=35751152 |s2cid=250022575|doi-access=free |hdl=11566/307966 |hdl-access=free }}
This review cites this research.
*{{cite journal |year=2021 |issue=1 |volume=12 |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |last1=Petrasch |first1=Stefan |last2=Pesci |first2=Saskia |last3=Pincot |first3=Dominique |last4=Feldmann |first4=Mitchell J |last5=Lopez |first5=Cindy |last6=Famula |first6=Randi |last7=Hardigan |first7=Michael |last8=Cole |first8=Glenn |last9=Knapp |first9=Steven |last10=Ulate |first10=Barbara |url=https://academic.oup.com/g3journal/article/12/1/jkab378/6427547 |title=Genomic prediction of strawberry resistance to postharvest fruit decay caused by the fungal pathogen ''Botrytis cinerea'' |journal=[[G3: Genes, Genomes, Genetics]] |issn=2160-1836}}
</ref>

Most ''B. cinerea'' [[propagule|inoculum]] is introduced via [[aeroplankton]].<ref name="Protected" /> Significant protection against this is afforded by [[polytunnel]]s.<ref name="Protected" /> Daugovish & Larson 2009 find 84%–90% greater yield and 62%–140% greater ''marketable'' yield resulting in {{convert|14,000-18,500|$/ha}} greater revenue due to polytunnels.<ref name="Protected" >
*{{cite journal
 |year=2023
 |publisher=[[Elsevier BV]]
 |volume=312
 |first4=Melba R.
 |first3=Daniel
 |first2=Caroline
 |first1=Nelda R.
 |last4=Salazar-Gutiérrez
 |last3=Wells
 |last2=Blanchard
 |last1=Hernández-Martínez
 |journal=[[Scientia Horticulturae]]
 |issn=0304-4238
 |page=111893
 |title=Current state and future perspectives of commercial strawberry production: A review
 |doi=10.1016/j.scienta.2023.111893
 |s2cid=256605553
|doi-access=free
 |bibcode=2023ScHor.31211893H
 }}
This review cites this research.
*{{cite journal
 |year=2009
 |issue=842
 |first2=K.D.
 |first1=O.
 |last2=Larson
 |last1=Daugovish
 |pages=163–166
 |publisher=[[International Society for Horticultural Science]]
 |journal=[[Acta Horticulturae]]
 |issn=0567-7572
 |doi=10.17660/actahortic.2009.842.20
 |title=Strawberry production with protected culture in southern California
}}
</ref>

Though gray mold elsewhere may be caused by both ''B. cinerea'' and ''[[Botrytis pseudocinerea|B. pseudocinerea]]'' in California ''B. pseudocinerea'' is unknown on strawberry.<ref name="Guideline" /> However it is found on blueberry in the San Joaquin Valley.<ref name="Guideline" >{{cite web |date=2016 |title=Botrytis Fruit Rot of Strawberry: Production Guideline |first1=Steven T. |last1=Koike |first2=Mark |last2=Bolda |url=https://ucanr.edu/blogs/strawberries_caneberries/blogfiles/37846.pdf |publisher=[[California Strawberry Commission]]}}</ref>

===Other pathogens of grape===
{{visible anchor|Red Blotch Disease of Grapevine|text=[[Grapevine red blotch disease|Red Blotch Disease]]}} (caused by ''grapevine red blotch virus'', GLRaV-3{{citation needed|reason=May conflict with next paragraph. May merely need clarification for related but different viruses.|date=November 2022}}) costs the state $90 million annually.<ref name="Safeguard-Specialty" /> Losses in [[Napa County]] cost over {{convert|69,500|$/hectare}} across the likely 25-year lifetime of a vineyard, far higher than the {{convert|2,200|$/hectare}} estimated for [[eastern Washington]].<ref name="Safeguard-Specialty" />

Al Rwahnih ''et al.'', 2013 discovered [[Grapevine Red Blotch-associated Virus]] (GRBaV) here, a DNA virus of this crop.<ref name="pathmicroorganismsscenarios">{{cite journal |year=2016 |volume=7 |publisher=[[Frontiers Media SA]] |first6=Patricio |first5=Constanza |first4=Daniela |first3=Mario |first2=Rudolf |first1=Grace |last6=Johnson |last5=Nuñez |last4=Muñoz |last3=Agurto |last2=Schlechter |last1=Armijo |journal=[[Frontiers in Plant Science]] |issn=1664-462X |doi=10.3389/fpls.2016.00382 |title=Grapevine Pathogenic Microorganisms: Understanding Infection Strategies and Host Response Scenarios |page=382 |pmid=27066032 |pmc=4811896 |doi-access=free}}<!--- Published by Frontiers but this review is well cited, including by AbuQamar et al., 2017, Songy et al., 2019 and Dalla Costa et al., 2017. ---></ref><ref name=methodsviraldiagnosis/>

{{visible anchor|Leafroll Disease of Grapevine|text=[[Grapevine leafroll disease|Leafroll Disease]]}} (''grapevine leafroll-associated virus 3'') is also economically significant.<ref name="Safeguard-Specialty">{{cite journal |year=2021 |issue=1 |volume=105 |publisher=[[American Phytopathological Society]] |first1=M. |first3=M. |first6=K. |first13=T. |first15=K. |first16=V. |first17=R. |first19=G. |first20=R. |first2=C. V. |first4=S. S. |first5=E. J. |first7=W. R. |first8=D. A. |first9=M. I. |first10=S. J. |first11=M. K. |first12=R. R. |first14=F. M. |first18=I. E. |pages=14–26 |journal=[[Plant Disease (journal)|Plant Disease]] |issn=0191-2917 |last1=Fuchs |last2=Almeyda |last3=Al Rwahnih |last4=Atallah |last5=Cieniewicz |last6=Farrar |last7=Foote |last8=Golino |last9=Gómez |last10=Harper |last11=Kelly |last12=Martin |last13=Martinson |last14=Osman |last15=Park |last16=Scharlau |last17=Smith |last18=Tzanetakis |last19=Vidalakis |last20=Welliver |title=Economic Studies Reinforce Efforts to Safeguard Specialty Crops in the United States |doi=10.1094/pdis-05-20-1061-fe |pmid=32840434 |s2cid=221305685|doi-access=free |hdl=1813/110213 |hdl-access=free }}</ref>

The seriousness of {{visible anchor|Powdery Mildew of Grape|text=Powdery Mildew}} (''[[Uncinula necator]]'') has been recognized since at least 1859 in the northern grape district.<ref name="Moller-1980">{{cite journal |first=William J. |last=Moller |title=Milestones in grape pathology |journal=[[California Agriculture]] |publisher=[[University of California Division of Agriculture and Natural Resources|UC Agriculture and Natural Resources]] |volume=34 |issue=7 |date=July 1, 1980 |issn=0073-2230 |pages=13–15 |doi=10.3733/ca.v034n07p13 |s2cid=82168201 |doi-broken-date=November 1, 2024 |url=https://hilgardia.ucanr.edu/Abstract/?a=ca.v034n07p13}}</ref> [[Newton B. Pierce]] was working in the area a few decades before his discovery of Pierce's Disease, and over the 1860s he watched ''U.{{nbsp}}necator'' spread to the south.<ref name="Moller-1980"/> [[Frederic Bioletti]] called it the only ''serious'' fungal disease the industry suffered from, and so it has remained ever since.<ref name="Moller-1980" /><ref name="Epstein-Bassein-2003">{{cite journal |last1=Epstein |first1=Lynn |last2=Bassein |first2=Susan |title=Patterns of Pesticide Use in California and The Implications for Strategies for Reduction of Pesticides |journal=[[Annual Review of Phytopathology]] |publisher=[[Annual Reviews (publisher)|Annual Reviews]] |volume=41 |issue=1 |year=2003 |issn=0066-4286 |doi=10.1146/annurev.phyto.41.052002.095612 |pages=351–375 |pmid=14527333}}</ref> The first case of ''U. necator'' [[demethylation inhibitor resistance]] (DMI resistance) was found in this state in 1980.<ref name=fernandez /> This was only confirmed with Gubler ''et al.'', 1996's reanalysis of 1986 and 1990 samples however.<ref name=fernandez/> Gubler finds that reduced rates prescribed by IPM are responsible for some of ''U. necator''{{'}}s [[triadimefon resistance|triadimefon-]], [[myclobutanil resistance|myclobutanil-]], and [[fenarimol resistance|fenarimol]] resistances.<ref name="Impact-IPM" /><ref name="Pow-Mil-Gr-Res">
*{{cite journal |date=2014 |issue=3 |volume=71 |publisher=[[Wiley Publishing]] |first3=David A. |first2=George W. |first1=Janna L. |pages=331–342 |last1=Beckerman |last2=Sundin |last3=Rosenberger |title=Do some IPM concepts contribute to the development of fungicide resistance? Lessons learned from the apple scab pathosystem in the United States |journal=[[Pest Management Science]] |issn=1526-498X |doi=10.1002/ps.3715 |s2cid=11868709 |pmid=24375947}}
*{{cite journal |year=1996 |issue=8 |volume=80 |first1=W. D. |first3=D. G. |first2=H. L. |first4=L. J. |pages=902–909 |publisher=[[American Phytopathological Society]] |journal=[[Plant Disease (journal)|Plant Disease]] |issn=0191-2917 |last2=Ypema |last3=Ouimette |last4=Bettiga |last1=Gubler |title=Occurrence of Resistance in ''Uncinula necator'' to Triadimefon, Myclobutanil, and Fenarimol in California Grapevines |doi=10.1094/pd-80-0902}}
</ref><ref name=fernandez>{{cite journal |year=2020 |volume=8 |publisher=[[MDPI]] |journal=[[Microorganisms (journal)|Microorganisms]] |first6=Dolores |first5=Alejandro |first4=Antonio |first3=Laura |first2=Alvaro |first1=Alejandra |last6=Fernandez |last5=Garcia |last4=Vicente |last3=Jimenez |last2=Polonio |last1=Fernandez |title=Fungicide Resistance in Powdery Mildew Fungi |issue=9 |page=1431 |doi=10.3390/microorganisms8091431 |pmid=32957583 |pmc=7564317 |doi-access=free}}</ref>

{{visible anchor|Phomopsis dieback|Phomopsis viticola}} (caused by ''[[Phomopsis viticola]]'') is also a major trunk disease here.<ref name=methodsviraldiagnosis/> It is [[endemic]] to California.<ref name=methodsviraldiagnosis>{{cite journal |year=2018 |publisher=[[MDPI]] |volume=8 |number=12 |page=195 |first6=BB |first5=AM |first4=EV |first3=NA |first2=SV |first1=AV |last6=Dzantiev |last5=Kamionskaya |last4=Porotikova |last3=Byzova |last2=Vinogradova |last1=Zherdev |title=Methods for the Diagnosis of Grapevine Viral Infections: A Review |journal=[[Agriculture (journal)|Agriculture]] |doi=10.3390/agriculture8120195 |doi-access=free|bibcode=2018Agric...8..195Z }}<!--- Published by MDPI. This review is cited by Shahgolzari et al. 2021, Viswanath 2020 and Fournier et al. 2022. ---></ref>

{{anchor|Fusarium}}

===''Fusarium'' spp.===
''[[Fusarium]]'' is a genus of many [[ubiquitous species|species which are ubiquitous around the world]], including here.

{{visible anchor|Fusarium Wilt of Strawberry|Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. fragariae}} (''Fusarium oxysporum'' f. sp. ''fragariae'') had only been seen once before, in [[Queensland]], in one sample of Winks & Williams in 1966,<ref name="Queensland-1966">{{cite journal |date=1966 |issue=4 |volume=22 |last2=Williams |pages=475–479 |first1=B. L. |first2=Y. N. |last1=Winks |journal=[[Queensland Journal of Agriculture and Animal Science]] |title=A wilt of strawberry caused by a new form of ''Fusarium oxysporum''}}</ref> until appearing again here in 2006 and identified by Koike ''et al.'' 2009.<ref name="First-Fus-Wilt">{{cite journal |year=2009 |issue=10 |volume=93 |pages=1077 |last1=Koike |first1=S. T. |last2=Kirkpatrick |first2=S. C. |last3=Gordon |first3=T. R. |publisher=[[American Phytopathological Society]] |journal=[[Plant Disease (journal)|Plant Disease]] |issn=0191-2917 |title=Fusarium Wilt of Strawberry Caused by ''Fusarium oxysporum'' in California |doi=10.1094/pdis-93-10-1077a |pmid=30754358}}</ref> {{As of|2018}} it has spread throughout the state.<ref name="Fw1">
*{{cite journal |date=2018 |issue=5 |volume=8 |first2=Thomas J. |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |journal=[[G3: Genes, Genomes, Genetics]] |issn=2160-1836 |last1=Pincot |first1=Dominique D. A. |last2=Poorten |last3=Hardigan |first3=Michael A. |last4=Harshman |first4=Julia M. |last5=Acharya |first5=Charlotte B. |last6=Cole |first6=Glenn S. |last7=Gordon |first7=Thomas R. |last8=Stueven |first8=Michelle |last9=Edger |first9=Patrick P. |last10=Knapp |first10=Steven J. |title=Genome-Wide Association Mapping Uncovers ''Fw1'', a Dominant Gene Conferring Resistance to Fusarium Wilt in Strawberry |doi=10.1534/g3.118.200129 |author10-link=Steven J. Knapp |pages=1817–1828 |pmid=29602808 |pmc=5940171 |s2cid=4493211}}
*{{cite journal |date=2020 |issue=1 |volume=7 |publisher=[[Nature Portfolio]] |journal=[[Horticulture Research]] |issn=2662-6810 |last1=Whitaker |first1=Vance M. |last2=Knapp |first2=Steven J. |last3=Hardigan |first3=Michael A. |last4=Edger |first4=Patrick P. |last5=Slovin |first5=Janet P. |last6=Bassil |first6=Nahla V. |last7=Hytönen |first7=Timo |last8=Mackenzie |first8=Kathryn K. |last9=Lee |first9=Seonghee |last10=Jung |first10=Sook |last11=Main |first11=Dorrie |last12=Barbey |first12=Christopher R. |last13=Verma |first13=Sujeet |title=A roadmap for research in octoploid strawberry |page=33 |doi=10.1038/s41438-020-0252-1 |pmid=32194969 |pmc=7072068 |bibcode=2020HorR....7...33W |s2cid=212706734 |author2-link=Steven J. Knapp}}
*{{cite book |date=2018 |publication-place=[[Cham, Switzerland]] |first2=Julie |first3=Richard |last1=Hytönen |first1=Timo |last2=Graham |last3=Harrison |title=The Genomes of Rosaceous Berries and Their Wild Relatives |isbn=978-3-319-76020-9 |id={{isbn |978-3-030-09381-5}}. {{isbn |978-3-319-76019-3}} |oclc=1040072353}}
*{{cite journal |date=2021 |issue=3 |publisher=[[Taylor & Francis]] |volume=97 |journal=[[Journal of Horticultural Science and Biotechnology]] |issn=1462-0316 |last=Menzel |first=Christopher Michael |pages=273–297 |id=[[PubAg]] Agid: [https://pubag.nal.usda.gov/catalog/7757406 7757406] |title=A review of powdery mildew in strawberries: the resistance of species, hybrids and cultivars to the pathogen is highly variable within and across studies with no standard method for assessing the disease |doi=10.1080/14620316.2021.1985402 |s2cid=245346271}}
</ref> Henry ''et al.'', 2017 apply a Japanese [[polymerase chain reaction|PCR-based]] test of nuclear ribosomal [[intergenic spacer]] and [[elongation factor 1-α]].<ref name="population-Fof" /> They find such high similarity between the intended {{endash}} Japanese {{endash}} target populations and California populations that there are almost no [[false negative]]s.<ref name="population-Fof" /> There are no [[false positive]]s on other ''Fo'' types (i.e. those not pathogenic on strawberry).<ref name="population-Fof" /> Although this suggests both populations have a common origin, that remains to be proven. The matching IGS and EF-1α sequences divide into three [[somatic compatibility]] groups.<ref name="population-Fof" /> The vast majority fell into what they term SCG1, with a few of SCG2 and SCG3.<ref name="population-Fof" /> SCG2 is always a false negative with this test which may indicate the entire group lacks the sequence in question.<ref name="population-Fof" /> Although this proves to be a good test, a universally valid test may require finding a sequence specifically pertinent to [[virulence]] on the host and not other, incidental sequences.<ref name="population-Fof">
*{{cite journal |date=2019 |issue=1 |pages=1–47 |first2=M. |volume=43 |first4=P. W. |last1=Lombard |last2=Sandoval-Denis |first1=L. |last3=Lamprecht |last4=Crous |first3=S. C. |title=Epitypification of ''Fusarium oxysporum'' – clearing the taxonomic chaos |journal=[[Persoonia]] |publisher=[[National Herbarium of the Netherlands]] + [[Centraalbureau voor Schimmelcultures]] |issn=0031-5850 |doi=10.3767/persoonia.2019.43.01 |pmid=32214496 |pmc=7085860 |s2cid=91706858}}
*{{cite journal |year=2017 |issue=4 |first3=C. M. |volume=101 |first2=S. C. |publisher=[[American Phytopathological Society]] |first1=P. M. |journal=[[Plant Disease (journal)|Plant Disease]] |issn=0191-2917 |eissn=1943-7692 |last1=Henry |first4=A. M. |last2=Kirkpatrick |first5=J. A. |last3=Islas |first7=O. |last4=Pastrana |first8=T. R. |last5=Yoshisato |last6=Koike |last7=Daugovish |last8=Gordon |first6=S. T. |title=The Population of ''Fusarium oxysporum'' f. sp. ''fragariae'', Cause of Fusarium Wilt of Strawberry, in California |doi=10.1094/pdis-07-16-1058-re |pages=550–556 |s2cid=59249617 |pmid=30677354|doi-access=free }}
</ref> For genetic resistance see {{section link||Diseases of strawberry}}.

In early 2012 a previously unknown [[plant disease]] (an unidentified ''Fusarium'') and [[vector (epidemiology)|vector]] (a ''[[Euwallacea]]'', preliminarily termed the {{visible anchor|Polyphagous shot hole borer|text=[[polyphagous shot hole borer]]}}, PSHB) were detected in [[Los Angeles County|Los Angeles]] and [[Orange County, California|Orange]] Counties.<ref name="Eskalen-et-al-2013-bundle">
*{{cite journal |last1=Hulcr |first1=Jiri |last2=Stelinski |first2=Lukasz L. |title=The Ambrosia Symbiosis: From Evolutionary Ecology to Practical Management |journal=[[Annual Review of Entomology]] |publisher=[[Annual Reviews (publisher)|Annual Reviews]] |volume=62 |issue=1 |date=January 31, 2017 |issn=0066-4170 |doi=10.1146/annurev-ento-031616-035105 |pages=285–303 |pmid=27860522|doi-access=free }}
*{{cite journal |last1=Eskalen |first1=Akif |last2=Stouthamer |first2=Richard |last3=Lynch |first3=Shannon Colleen |last4=Rugman-Jones |first4=Paul F. |last5=Twizeyimana |first5=Mathias |last6=Gonzalez |first6=Alex |last7=Thibault |first7=Tim |title=Host Range of Fusarium Dieback and Its Ambrosia Beetle (Coleoptera: Scolytinae) Vector in Southern California |journal=[[Plant Disease (journal)|Plant Disease]] |publisher=[[American Phytopathological Society]] |volume=97 |issue=7 |year=2013 |issn=0191-2917 |doi=10.1094/pdis-11-12-1026-re |pages=938–951 |s2cid=73424166 |pmid=30722538}}
</ref> This is especially a disease affecting avocado growers, but also other crops in this state and in its other invasive range, [[avocado cultivation in Israel|in Israel]].<ref name="Eskalen-et-al-2013-bundle" /> In fact although PSHB was noticed on a [[black locust]] here in 2003, the associated ''Fusarium'' was only detected in 2012 on home avocado trees in [[Los Angeles County|LA County]].<ref name="Eskalen-et-al-2013-bundle" /> (See {{section link||Avocados}} above.) As all ''Euwallacea'' in both their native and invasive ranges, this insect prefers to infest hosts in this area in locations which are stressful due to their unnaturalness, such as urban ornamental plantings and [[orchard]]s.<ref name="Eskalen-et-al-2013-bundle" />

{{visible anchor|Fusarium Wilt of Lettuce|Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. lactucum}} ([[Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. lactucum|''Fusarium oxysporum'' f. sp. ''lactucum'']]) is common in the state.<ref name="Iceberg">{{cite book |year=2011 |pages=1–6 |first8=Krishna |first7=Richard |first6=Eric |first5=Steve |first4=Louise |first3=Marita |first2=Michael |first1=Thomas |last8=Subbarao |last7=Smith |last6=Natwick |last4=Jackson |last3=Cantwell |last2=Cahn |first9=Etaferahu |last9=Takele |last1=Turini |last5=Koike |publisher=[[University of California, Agriculture and Natural Resources]] |series=ANRCatalog |title=Iceberg Lettuce Production in California |isbn=978-1-60107-762-2 |doi=10.3733/ucanr.7215}}</ref>

{{visible anchor | Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. vasinfectum | text=[[Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. vasinfectum|''Fusarium oxysporum'' f. sp. ''vasinfectum'']]}} is a disease of {{slink||Cotton}}.<ref name="race-4" /> Kim ''et al.'', 2005 finds races 1, 2, 3, 4, 6 and 8 are present.<ref name="race-4" /> They find race 4 arrived from [[India]] in 2003.<ref name="race-4" >
*{{cite journal |date=2019 |issue=1 |pages=1–47 |first2=M. |volume=43 |first4=P. W. |last1=Lombard |last2=Sandoval-Denis |first1=L. |last3=Lamprecht |last4=Crous |first3=S. C. |title=Epitypification of ''Fusarium oxysporum'' – clearing the taxonomic chaos |journal=[[Persoonia]] |publisher=[[National Herbarium of the Netherlands]] + [[Centraalbureau voor Schimmelcultures]] |issn=0031-5850 |doi=10.3767/persoonia.2019.43.01 |s2cid=91706858 |pmid=32214496 |pmc=7085860}}
*{{cite journal |year=2006 |issue=6 |volume=90 |last1=Davis |first1=R. M. |last2=Colyer |first2=P. D. |last3=Rothrock |first3=C. S. |last4=Kochman |first4=J. K. |pages=692–703 |publisher=[[American Phytopathological Society]] |journal=[[Plant Disease (journal)|Plant Disease]] |issn=0191-2917 |s2cid=73477921 |pmid=30781226 |url=https://apsjournals.apsnet.org/doi/abs/10.1094/PD-90-0692 |title=Fusarium Wilt of Cotton: Population Diversity and Implications for Management |doi=10.1094/PD-90-0692}}
These reviews cite this research.
*{{cite journal |last1=Kim |first1=Y. |last2=Hutmacher |first2=R. B. |last3=Davis |first3=R. M. |title=Characterization of California Isolates of ''Fusarium oxysporum'' f. sp. ''vasinfectum'' |volume=89 |issue=4 |year=2005 |publisher=[[American Phytopathological Society]] |journal=[[Plant Disease (journal)|Plant Disease]] |issn=0191-2917 |url=https://apsjournals.apsnet.org/doi/10.1094/PD-89-0366 |s2cid=73500185 |pmid=30795451 |pages=366–372 |doi=10.1094/PD-89-0366}}
</ref> Race 4 is so common here that varieties are screened for resistance before development or deployment.<ref name="fovreview" >{{Cite journal |issue=2 |publisher=[[Springer Science and Business Media LLC]] |date=2015 |volume=207 |last1=Sanogo |first1=Soum |last2=Zhang |first2=Jinfa |pages=255–271 |journal=[[Euphytica]] |issn=0014-2336 |url=https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10681-015-1532-y |title=Resistance sources, resistance screening techniques and disease management for Fusarium wilt in cotton |doi=10.1007/s10681-015-1532-y |s2cid=254464904}}</ref> Unlike other [[strain (biology)|strain]]s it does not require a [[vector (epidemiology)|vector]], a [[root-knot nematode]].<ref name="Recurrence" >{{Cite journal |year=2019 |publisher=[[Elsevier BV]] |volume=50 |journal=[[Current Opinion in Plant Biology]] |issn=1369-5266 |first5=Libo |first4=Ping |first3=Terry |first2=Kevin |first1=Kevin |last5=Shan |last4=He |last3=Wheeler |last2=Babilonia |last1=Cox |pages=95–103 |title=Return of old foes — recurrence of bacterial blight and Fusarium wilt of cotton |doi=10.1016/j.pbi.2019.03.012 |s2cid=149455257 |pmid=31075542|doi-access=free |bibcode=2019COPB...50...95C }}</ref> Race 4 isolates here are more [[pathogenicity|pathogenic]] on ''[[Gossypium barbadense]]'' than on ''[[Gossypium hirsutum|G. hirsutum]]''.<ref name="fovsjv" >
*{{cite book |date=2022 |publication-place=[[New York, NY]] |last=Coleman |first=Jeffrey |title=Fusarium wilt : methods and protocols |series=Methods in Molecular Biology |volume=2391 |doi=10.1007/978-1-0716-1795-3 |isbn=978-1-0716-1794-6 |s2cid=239461260 |oclc=1280486933}}{{RP |193}}
This review cites this research.
*{{cite journal |issue=7 |year=2021 |volume=105 |last1=Diaz |first1=Josue |last2=Garcia |first2=Jorge |last3=Lara |first3=Celeste |last4=Hutmacher |first4=Robert |last5=Ulloa |first5=Mauricio |last6=Nichols |first6=Robert |last7=Ellis |first7=Margaret |pages=1898–1911 |publisher=[[American Phytopathological Society]] |journal=[[Plant Disease (journal)|Plant Disease]] |issn=0191-2917 |title=Characterization of Current ''Fusarium oxysporum'' f. sp. ''vasinfectum'' Isolates from Cotton in the San Joaquin Valley of California and Lower Valley El Paso, Texas |doi=10.1094/pdis-05-20-1038-re |pmid=33021919 |s2cid=222183925|doi-access=free }}
</ref>

{{anchor|Alternaria}}

===''Alternaria'' spp.===
Various ''[[Alternaria]]'' spp. are significant [[fungal crop disease|fungal diseases]] here and often receive [[strobilurin]], [[iprodione]], [[azoxystrobin]], and [[tebuconazole]] treatments.<ref name="Ma-Michailides-2005-rev"/> The Ma & Michaelides group has done extensive work on [[fungicide resistance]], including in these pathogens.<ref name="Ma-Michailides-2005-rev" /> They have characterized [[fungicide resistance allele|resistance allele]]s (and in some cases produced [[molecular diagnostics]] methologies) for [[strobilurin resistance|strobilurin-resistant-]], [[iprodione resistance|iprodione-resistant-]], and [[azoxystrobin resistance|azoxystrobin-resistant-]] isolates.<ref name="Ma-Michailides-2005-rev" />

''{{visible anchor|Alternaria alternata|text=[[Alternaria alternata|A. alternata]]}}'' has one of the widest host ranges of any [[fungal crop pathogen]] and so fungicides are commonly used.<ref name="res-middle-of-state" /> Almost all fruiting production of vulnerable crops must be fungicide-treated.<ref name="res-middle-of-state" /> Avenot, along with the Michailides group has found extensive [[boscalid]] resistance in a swathe from the center down into the central southern part of the state, especially [[Kern County|Kern]], [[Tulare County|Tulare]], [[Fresno County|Fresno]], and [[Madera County|Madera]].<ref name="SDH-mechanisms">{{cite journal |date=2020 |issue=1 |last2=Lee |pages=1–7 |volume=26 |publisher=[[Korean Society of Plant Pathology]] |issn=1598-2262 |journal=[[Research in Plant Disease]] |s2cid=219795860 |doi=10.5423/rpd.2020.26.1.1 |title=Molecular Mechanisms of Succinate Dehydrogenase Inhibitor Resistance in Phytopathogenic Fungi |first1=Hyunkyu |last1=Sang |first2=Hyang Burm|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name="res-middle-of-state" /> Although it is also commonly [[fungicide application|applied]] in [[Kings County, California|Kings]], no resistance is known there.<ref name="res-middle-of-state">{{cite journal |year=2010 |issue=7 |volume=29 |pages=643–651 |publisher=[[Elsevier]] |journal=[[Crop Protection (journal)|Crop Protection]] |issn=0261-2194 |last1=Avenot |first1=Hervé F. |first2=Themis J. |last2=Michailides |title=Progress in understanding molecular mechanisms and evolution of resistance to succinate dehydrogenase inhibiting (SDHI) fungicides in phytopathogenic fungi |doi=10.1016/j.cropro.2010.02.019 |bibcode=2010CrPro..29..643A |s2cid=41034322}}</ref> (See {{section link||Boscalid}}.)

{{visible anchor|Black Heart|Heart Rot of Pomegranate}} is a common pomegranate disease worldwide. Out of the group of causative species, here Luo ''et al.'', 2017 find it is caused by ''A. alternata'' and ''{{visible anchor|Alternaria arborescens|text=[[Alternaria arborescens|A. arborescens]]}}''.<ref name="Palou-Smilanick-2020" />{{rp|page=192}}<ref name="Luo-et-al-2017">{{cite journal |last1=Luo |first1=Y. |last2=Hou |first2=L. |last3=Förster |first3=H. |last4=Pryor |first4=B. |last5=Adaskaveg |first5=J. E. |title=Identification of ''Alternaria'' Species Causing Heart Rot of Pomegranates in California |journal=[[Plant Disease (journal)|Plant Disease]] |publisher=[[American Phytopathological Society]] |volume=101 |issue=3 |year=2017 |issn=0191-2917 |doi=10.1094/pdis-08-16-1176-re |pages=421–427 |pmid=30677341|doi-access=free }}</ref> Michailides ''et al.'', 2008 finds the {{visible anchor|Wonderful pomegranate|text='Wonderful' cultivar}} can suffer at a rate of 10% or more here.<ref name="Palou-Smilanick-2020" />{{rp|page=192}}<ref name="APS-Centennial-9-181">{{cite journal |first1=T. J. |last1=Michailides |first2=D. |last2=Morgan |first3=M. |last3=Quist |first4=H. |last4=Reyes |title=Abstracts Submitted for Presentation at the 2008 APS Centennial Meeting |journal=[[Phytopathology (journal)|Phytopathology]] |publisher=[[American Phytopathological Society]] |volume=98 |issue=6s |year=2008 |issn=0031-949X |doi=10.1094/phyto.2008.98.6.s9 |pages=S9–S181 |url=http://apsjournals.apsnet.org/doi/pdf/10.1094/PHYTO.2008.98.6.S9}}</ref>{{rp|page=S105}} (See also {{section link||Pomegranates}}.)

{{visible anchor|Alternaria Rot of Fig}} is common here. It is caused by various species of this genus and relatives including: ''[[Ulocladium atrum]]'', ''A. alternata'', rarely other ''Alternaria'' spp., ''[[Dendryphiella vinosa]]'', and ''[[Curvularia]]'' spp. ''[[Epicoccum purpurascens]]'' causes Alternaria of breba only.<ref name="Fungal-Decay" /> (The first, "breba" crop is not eaten but must be removed because it harbors [[inoculum (disambiguation)|inoculum]] of all of these microbes for the second, real crop.)<ref name="Fungal-Decay">
*{{cite book |year=2011 |publication-place=[[Cambridge]] |publisher=[[Woodhead Publishing]] |editor-last=Yahia |editor-first=Elhadi |series=Postharvest Biology and Technology of Tropical and Subtropical Fruits |issn=2042-8049 |eissn=2042-8057 |volume=3 |title=Cocona to mango |doi=10.1533/9780857092762 |isbn=978-0-85709-362-2 |oclc=828736900 |s2cid=116882871}}{{rp|pages=140,141}}
*{{cite book |editor-last=Bautista-Baños |editor-first=Silvia |title=Postharvest Decay: Control Strategies |publication-place=[[London]], UK |date=2014 |isbn=978-0-12-411552-1 |oclc=880621274 |language=en |doi=10.1016/C2012-0-07916-1}}{{rp|page=148}}
*{{cite journal |year=2007 |issue=12 |volume=91 |publisher=[[American Phytopathological Society]] |journal=[[Plant Disease (journal)|Plant Disease]] |issn=0191-2917 |last1=Doster |first1=Mark A. |last2=Michailides |first2=Themis J. |title=Fungal Decay of First-Crop and Main-Crop Figs |doi=10.1094/pdis-91-12-1657 |pages=1657–1662 |s2cid=73497359 |pmid=30780609|doi-access=free }}
</ref> See also {{section link||Fig}}.

{{anchor|Phytoplasma}}

===''Candidatus'' Phytoplasma===
The {{Visible anchor|Peach Yellow Leaf Roll|Candidatus Phytoplasma pyri|PYLR}} phytoplasma ([[Candidatus Phytoplasma pyri|''Candidatus'' Phytoplasma pyri]]) was first found here in the [[Sacramento Valley]] in 1948.<ref name="non-EU-categorization" /> The same [[pathogen]] may be the cause of {{Visible anchor|Almond Brown Line and Decline|text=[[almond brown line and decline|Almond Brown Line and Decline]]}}.<ref name="non-EU-categorization">{{cite journal |year=2020 |issue=1 |volume=18 |publisher=[[John Wiley and Sons Ltd]] |last24=Jacques |first1=Claude |first23=Marco |first2=Katharina |first22=Cristina |first3=Paolo |first21=Luciana |last4=Jaques |first20=Francesco |first5=Annemarie |first19=Michela |first6=Alan |first18=Domenico |first7=Christer |first17=Lucia |first9=Juan |first16=Jonathan |first10=Stephen |first15=Antonio |last11=Potting |first13=Hans |last6=MacLeod |last7=Magnusson |first4=Josep |last16=Yuen |first24=Marie |last2=Dehnen-Schmutz |last3=Gonthier |last5=Justesen |last8=Milonas |first8=Panagiotis |last9=Navas-Cortes |last10=Parnell |first11=Roel |last12=Reignault |first12=Philippe Lucien |last13=Thulke |last14=Van der Werf |first14=Wopke |last15=Civera |last17=Zappalà |last18=Bosco |last19=Chiumenti |last20=Di Serio |last21=Galetto |last22=Marzachì |last23=Pautasso |s2cid=214229451 |doi=10.2903/j.efsa.2020.5929 |issn=1831-4732 |journal=[[EFSA Journal]] |title=Pest categorisation of the non-EU phytoplasmas of ''Cydonia'' Mill., ''Fragaria'' L., ''Malus'' Mill., ''Prunus'' L., ''Pyrus'' L., ''Ribes'' L., ''Rubus'' L. and ''Vitis'' L. |last1=Bragard |pages=e05929 |pmid=32626484 |pmc=7008834}}</ref>

===Other pathogens===
{{visible anchor|Phytophthora cactorum|text=''[[Phytophthora cactorum]]''}} causes {{visible anchor|Strawberry crown rot|text=[[Strawberry crown rot]]}}, a common disease here.<ref name="Whitaker-2011">{{cite journal |last=Whitaker |first=Vance M. |title=Applications of molecular markers in strawberry |journal=[[Journal of Berry Research]] |publisher=[[IOS Press]] |volume=1 |issue=3 |year=2011 |issn=1878-5093 |doi=10.3233/br-2011-013 |pages=115–127 |s2cid=34780711|doi-access=free }}<!--- Cited by Sattler et al., 2016, Longhi et al., 2014, Peace 2017, etc. ---></ref>

The {{visible anchor|Foliar Nematode|Aphelenchoides fragariae}} (''[[Aphelenchoides fragariae]]'') and {{visible anchor|Northern Root Knot Nematode|Meloidogyne hapla}} (''[[Meloidogyne hapla]]'') are the two most common {{visible anchor|Strawberry nematodes|text=[[strawberry nematode disease]]s}} here,<ref name="strawb-nemat-UC-IPM">{{cite web |url=http://ipm.ucanr.edu/agriculture/strawberry/Nematodes/ |title=Nematodes / Strawberry |website=[[University of California Integrated Pest Management|UC Integrated Pest Management]] |publisher=UC Agriculture |date=July 2018 |first1=A. |last1=Ploeg |first2=B. B. |last2=Westerdahl}}</ref> although RKN is rarely seen by CalPoly Strawberry Center's diagnostic lab.<ref name="strawb-RKN">{{cite web |title=Root-Knot Nematode in Strawberry |website=Cal Poly Strawberry Center BLOG |date=June 28, 2022 |url=http://strawberrycenterblog.com/2022/06/28/root-knot-nematode-in-strawberry/ |access-date=June 28, 2022}}</ref> Even rarer are the {{visible anchor|Root Lesion Nematode|Pratylenchus penetrans|text=Root Lesion}} (''[[Pratylenchus penetrans]]''), {{visible anchor|Stem Nematode|Ditylenchus dipsaci|text=Stem}} (''[[Ditylenchus dipsaci]]''), {{visible anchor|Dagger Nematode|Xiphinema americanum|text=Dagger}} (''[[Xiphinema americanum]]''), {{visible anchor|Needle Nematode|Longidorus elongatus|text=Needle}} (''[[Longidorus elongatus]]''), {{visible anchor|Foliar Nematode|Aphelenchoides ritzemabosi|Aphelenchoides besseyi|text=Foliar}} (''[[Aphelenchoides ritzemabosi]]'' and ''[[Aphelenchoides besseyi|A. besseyi]]''), and other {{visible anchor|Root Knot Nematode|Meloidogyne incognita|Meloidogyne javanica|text=Root Knot}} (''[[Meloidogyne incognita]]'' and ''[[Meloidogyne javanica|M. javanica]]'') nematodes.<ref name="strawb-nemat-UC-IPM" />

{{visible anchor|Anthracnose|text=[[Anthracnose]]}} occurs on {{visible anchor|Peach anthracnose|text=peach}}, {{visible anchor|Almond anthracnose|text=almond}}, and {{visible anchor|Strawberry anthracnose|text=strawberry}} here.<ref name="Dowling-et-al-2020">{{cite journal |last1=Dowling |first1=Madeline |last2=Peres |first2=Natalia |last3=Villani |first3=Sara |last4=Schnabel |first4=Guido |title=Managing Colletotrichum on Fruit Crops: A "Complex" Challenge |journal=[[Plant Disease (journal)|Plant Disease]] |publisher=[[American Phytopathological Society]] |volume=104 |issue=9 |year=2020 |issn=0191-2917 |doi=10.1094/pdis-11-19-2378-fe |pages=2301–2316 |pmid=32689886 |s2cid=219479598|doi-access=free }}</ref> {{visible anchor|Colletotrichum acutatum|text=''[[Colletotrichum acutatum]]''}} – a [[soilborne pathogen]]<ref name="anth">{{Cite web |access-date=2023-02-19 |title=Agriculture |website=[[UC Statewide IPM Program]] |url=https://ipm.ucanr.edu/agriculture/strawberry/anthracnose/}}</ref> – is a common cause.<ref name="Dowling-et-al-2020" /> Natamycin is often used in strawberry.<ref name="Dowling-et-al-2020" /> (See {{section link||Natamycin}} and {{section link||Strawberries}}.) Adaskaveg & Hartin 1997 identify the ''C. acutatum'' [[strain (biology)|strain]]s most frequently responsible in peach and almond.<ref name="Dowling-et-al-2020" /> (See {{section link||Almonds}} and {{section link||Peaches}}.)

''{{visible anchor|Monilinia fructicola|text=[[Monilinia fructicola]]}}'' and ''{{visible anchor|Monilinia laxa|text=[[Monilinia laxa|M. laxa]]}}'' are significant diseases of stonefruits here and [[benzimidazole]] is often used.<ref name="Ma-Michailides-2005-rev" /> The Ma & Michaelides group has done extensive work on [[fungicide resistance]] in these microorganisms.<ref name="Ma-Michailides-2005-rev" /> (See {{section link||Stonefruit}} and {{section link||Benzimidazole}}.)

''{{visible anchor|Botryosphaeria dothidea|text=[[Botryosphaeria dothidea]]}}'' is a significant [[fungal crop disease|fungal diseases]] here which often receives [[strobilurin]], [[iprodione]], [[azoxystrobin]], and [[tebuconazole]] treatments.<ref name="Ma-Michailides-2005-rev"/> The Ma & Michaelides group has done extensive work on [[fungicide resistance]], including in this pathogen.<ref name="Ma-Michailides-2005-rev" /> They have characterized [[fungicide resistance allele|resistance allele]]s of [[tebuconazole resistance|tebuconazole-resistant-]] isolates.<ref name="Ma-Michailides-2005-rev" />

Figs commonly suffer from {{visible anchor|Fig Smut}} here.<ref name="Fungal-Decay" /> Smut is caused by various ''[[Aspergillus]]'' spp. and relatives, including: ''[[Aspergillus niger]]'', ''[[Aspergillus japonicus|A. japonicus]]'', ''[[Aspergillus carbonarius|A. carbonarius]]'', ''[[Aspergillus flavus|A. flavus]]'' and ''[[Aspergillus parasiticus|A. parasiticus]]'', ''[[Eurotium]]'' spp., ''[[Aspergillus tamarii|A. tamarii]]'', ''[[Aspergillus terreus|A. terreus]]'', ''[[Aspergillus wentii|A. wentii]]'', ''[[Aspergillus alliaceus|A. alliaceus]]'', ''[[Aspergillus melleus|A. melleus]]'', ''[[Aspergillus ochraceus|A. ochraceus]]'', ''[[Emericella]]'' spp., ''[[Aspergillus carneus|A. carneus]]'', ''[[Aspergillus fumigatus|A. fumigatus]]'', ''[[Aspergillus sclerotiorum|A. sclerotiorum]]'', and ''[[Aspergillus sydowii|A. sydowii]]''.<ref name="Fungal-Decay" />

Olives here suffer from a wide range of [[olive disease|fungal diseases]] of the [[Botryosphaeriaceae]] family, as elsewhere in the world.<ref name="Moral-et-al-2019" /> Úrbez-Torres ''et al.'', 2013 finds {{visible anchor|Neofusicoccum mediterraneum|text=''[[Neofusicoccum]] [[Neofusicoccum mediterraneum|mediterraneum]]''}} and {{visible anchor|Diplodia mutila|text=''[[Diplodia mutila]]''}} are the most virulent of them on [[Manzanillo (olive)|Manzanillo]] and [[Sevillano (olive)|Sevillano]].<ref name="Moral-et-al-2019" /> Moral ''et al.'', 2010 finds ''N. mediterraneum'' commonly causes a [[branch blight]] on several cultivars and {{visible anchor|Diplodia seriata|text=''[[Diplodia seriata|D. seriata]]''}} causes a [[branch canker]].<ref name="Moral-et-al-2019" /> More specific controls than currently available are needed for ''N. mediterraneum'' in highly susceptible cultivars, and early harvest may be the only successful treatment for ''D. seriata''.<ref name="Moral-et-al-2019" /> See {{section link||Olives}}.

{{visible anchor|Avian malaria|text=[[Avian malaria]]}} is present in the state.<ref name="Atkinson-et-al-2009-bundle" /><ref name="relictum-CABI-2019-bundle" /> ''{{visible anchor|Plasmodium relictum|text=[[Plasmodium relictum]]}}'' and its [[vector (epidemiology)|vector]]s ''C. quinquefasciatus'', ''C. stigmatosoma'', and ''C. tarsalis'' are most commonly responsible.<ref name="relictum-CABI-2019-bundle" />

{{Visible anchor|Stripe Rust|Puccinia striiformis f. sp. tritici|Puccinia striiformis f.sp. tritici}} ([[Puccinia striiformis f. sp. tritici|''Puccinia striiformis'' f. sp. ''tritici'']], ''Pst'') is found on [[Barley]], wheat, and various grasses here.<ref name="Kang-Chen-2017" />{{rp|page=9}} (See {{section link||Barley}} and {{section link||Wheat}}.) Maccaferri ''et al.'' 2015 surveys the world's wheat and finds the [[Davis, California|Davis]] ''Pst'' populations are unusually heterogenous.<ref name="Worldwide-Hex-Collection" /> That makes the Davis environment a useful experimental location for differentiating wheat [[Plant disease resistance|genetic resistance]].<ref name="Worldwide-Hex-Collection">
*{{cite book |date=2017 |publication-place=[[Dordrecht]] |publisher=[[Springer Netherlands]] |last1=Kang |first1=Zhensheng |last2=Chen |first2=Xianming |pages=vii+719 |s2cid=30527470 |oclc=1006649931 |lccn=2017943111 |doi=10.1007/978-94-024-1111-9 |isbn=978-94-024-1111-9 |id={{isbn |978-94-024-1491-2}}. {{isbn |978-94-024-1109-6}} |title=Stripe rust}}{{rp|page=226}}
*{{cite journal |year=2021 |issue=4 |volume=9 |first8=Tao |first1=Tong |first7=Gavin |first3=Lei |first2=Chen |last8=Li |last1=Zheng |last7=Humphreys |last2=Hua |last6=Bai |last3=Li |last5=Yuan |last4=Sun |first4=Zhengxi |first5=Minmin |first6=Guihua |issn=2214-5141 |journal=The Crop Journal |publisher=[[Elsevier BV]] |pages=739–749 |s2cid=229387786 |doi=10.1016/j.cj.2020.10.006 |title=Integration of meta-QTL discovery with omics: Towards a molecular breeding platform for improving wheat resistance to Fusarium head blight|doi-access=free }}
*{{cite journal |year=2015 |issue=3 |volume=5 |first10=Jorge |first1=Marco |first9=Michael |first3=Peter |last8=Chen |last5=Chao |first6=Dario |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |issn=2160-1836 |journal=[[G3: Genes, Genomes, Genetics]] |last10=Dubcovsky |last9=Pumphrey |first8=Xianming |first7=Eligio |last6=Cantu |first5=Shiaoman |first4=Zewdie |last3=Bulli |first2=Junli |last1=Maccaferri |last4=Abate |last7=Bossolini |last2=Zhang |pages=449–465 |s2cid=8111045 |pmid=25609748 |pmc=4349098 |doi=10.1534/g3.114.014563 |title=A Genome-Wide Association Study of Resistance to Stripe Rust (''Puccinia striiformis'' f. sp. ''tritici'') in a Worldwide Collection of Hexaploid Spring Wheat (''Triticum aestivum'' L.)}}
</ref>

''[[Stromatinia cepivora]]'' (garlic white rot) was identified in the [[San Francisco]] area in the 1930s and [[Gilroy, California|Gilroy]] in the 1940s.<ref name=McDonald>{{Cite web |url=http://pnva.org/files/files/WhiterotPNWV.pdf |title=White Rot Identification and Control |publisher=[[University of Guelph]] |location=[[Guelph]], Ontario, Canada |first1=Mary Ruth |last1=McDonald |first2=Maria |last2=Jaime |first3=Marilyn |last3=Hovius |first4=Michael |last4=Tesfaedrias |first5=Laura |last5=Barbison |first6=Greg |last6=Boland |website=[[Pacific Northwest Vegetable Association]] |access-date=November 17, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161117145015/http://pnva.org/files/files/WhiterotPNWV.pdf |archive-date=November 17, 2016}}</ref> It continues to be a problem for garlic growers in the state.<ref name="karst-resurgence">{{cite news |last1=Karst |first1=Tom |title=California garlic sees resurgence |url=https://www.thepacker.com/article/california-garlic-sees-resurgence |access-date=October 24, 2019 |work=The Packer |publisher=Farm Journal |date=May 30, 2018}}</ref>

{{visible anchor|Leaf Spot of Caneberry|Mycosphaerella rubi|Septoria rubi}} (''[[Mycosphaerella rubi]]'', anamorph ''Septoria rubi'') is common here.<ref name="cane-spot-UC-IPM" /> It is common on caneberry excluding raspberry, so erect and trailing blackberry, dewberry, olallieberry, and boysenberry.<ref name="cane-spot-UC-IPM" /> (See {{section link||Caneberry}}.) Treatment is simple, almost entirely relying on increased air circulation.<ref name="cane-spot-UC-IPM" /> No [[fungicide]]s are registered but any fungicides for {{section link||Anthracnose}} and {{section link||Gray mold}} will work.<ref name="cane-spot-UC-IPM" /> [[Copper fungicide|Copper]] and [[lime sulfur]] work to some degree.<ref name="cane-spot-UC-IPM" />

This should be distinguished from {{visible anchor|Leaf Spot of Raspberry|Sphaerulina rubi|Cylindrosporium rubi}} (''[[Sphaerulina rubi]]'', anamorph ''Cylindrosporium rubi'').<ref name="cane-spot-UC-IPM" /> Although Leaf Spot of Raspberry is found here it is not ''common'' in California.<ref name="cane-spot-UC-IPM">{{cite web |access-date=July 29, 2022 |date=June 2015 |publisher=UC Agriculture |website=[[University of California Integrated Pest Management|UC Integrated Pest Management]] |url=https://www2.ipm.ucanr.edu/agriculture/caneberries/Leaf-Spot/ |first1=S.T. |last1=Koike |first2=M.P. |last2=Bolda |first3=W.D. |last3=Gubler |first4=L.J. |last4=Bettiga |title=Leaf Spot}}</ref> (See {{section link||Raspberry}}.)

{{visible anchor|Verticillium Wilt}}s ([[biovar]]s of ''[[Verticillium dahliae]]'') are found here as in any other ecozone. This includes {{visible anchor|Verticillium Wilt of Strawberry}}.<ref name="vert-straw-UC-IPM" /> Unlike every other known Vert Wilt of any other crop, this syndrome sometimes lacks any or any noticeable [[Vascular tissue|vascular]] discoloration of the [[crown (botany)|crown]].<ref name="2013-Cal-straw-vert">{{cite web |access-date=August 6, 2022 |date=2013 |website=[[UCANR]] |url=https://ucanr.edu/blogs/blogcore/postdetail.cfm?postnum=10993 |title=Verticillium Wilt in strawberries: California 2013 Update |first1=Mark |last1=Bolda |first2=Steven |last2=Koike}}</ref> In strawberry, methyl bromide has historically been vital to prevention, and with phase out, this disease is of increasing concern.<ref name="vert-straw-UC-IPM" /><ref name="2014-impact-IPM">{{cite book |year=2014 |publication-place=[[Dordrecht]] |publisher=[[Springer Netherlands]] |isbn=978-94-007-7801-6 |title=Integrated Pest Management |doi=10.1007/978-94-007-7802-3_7 |chapter=The Impact of Integrated Pest Management Programs on Pesticide Use in California, USA |pages=173–200 |last1=Epstein |first1=Lynn |last2=Zhang |first2=Minghua}}</ref> (See {{section link||Methyl bromide}}.) In all cases ''some'' fumigation is necessary, and if fumigation is not possible then solarization and/or [[crop rotation|rotation]] are the only remaining options.<ref name="vert-straw-UC-IPM" /> (See {{section link||Soil solarization}}.)<ref name="vert-straw-UC-IPM" /> Although [[drip fumigation]] (fumigation inline in the [[drip tape]]) is possible it does not produce the same results, especially failing to reach the shoulders of the beds.<ref name="vert-straw-UC-IPM" /> Nurseries universally use MB or MB + chloropicrin, while growers may use 1,3-D + chloropicrin, chloropicrin alone, metam sodium, or metam potassium.<ref name="vert-straw-UC-IPM">{{cite web |access-date=July 30, 2022 |first1=S. T. |first4=M. P. |first3=T. R. |first2=G. T. |date=July 2018 |publisher=UC Agriculture |website=[[University of California Integrated Pest Management|UC Integrated Pest Management]] |url=https://www2.ipm.ucanr.edu/agriculture/strawberry/Verticillium-wilt/ |last1=Koike |last4=Bolda |last3=Gordon |last2=Browne |title=Verticillium Wilt}}</ref> Note that MB+chloropicrin also provides an uncharacterized [[growth promoter]] effect in this crop.<ref name="2014-impact-IPM" />{{rp|page=180}} (See {{section link||Chloropicrin}}, {{section link||1,3-dichloropropene}}, {{section link||Metam sodium}}, {{section link||Metam potassium}}.)

{{visible anchor|Strawberry Crinkle Virus}} (SCV, ''[[Strawberry crinkle cytorhabdovirus]]'') is common here.<ref name="Jackson-et-al-2005" /><ref name="Jackson-2021" /><ref name="handling" /> Much of the fundamental research into SCV has been performed by a lab at [[UC Berkeley]], including research on [[mechanical transmission]].<ref name="Jackson-et-al-2005">{{cite journal |year=2005 |issue=1 |volume=43 |publisher=[[Annual Reviews (publisher)|Annual Reviews]] |journal=[[Annual Review of Phytopathology]] |issn=0066-4286 |pages=623–660 |last4=Bragg |last1=Jackson |last2=Dietzgen |first2=Ralf G. |last3=Goodin |first3=Michael M. |first4=Jennifer N. |last5=Deng |first5=Min |title=Biology of Plant Rhabdoviruses |first1=Andrew O. |author1-link=Andrew O. Jackson |doi=10.1146/annurev.phyto.43.011205.141136 |pmid=16078897}}</ref><ref name="Jackson-2021">{{cite journal |year=2021 |issue=1 |volume=8 |publisher=[[Annual Reviews (publisher)|Annual Reviews]] |journal=[[Annual Review of Virology]] |issn=2327-056X |last=Jackson |title=Reflections on a Career in Plant Virology: A Chip Floating on a Stream |first=Andrew O. |pages=23–50 |author-link=Andrew O. Jackson |doi=10.1146/annurev-virology-091919-105056 |pmid=34255543 |s2cid=235823348}}</ref>

Frequent use has produced [[streptomycin resistance]] in {{visible anchor|Fire Blight|Erwinia amylovora}} (''[[Erwinia amylovora]]'') here,<ref name="Fire-resist">
*{{cite journal |first4=James E. |year=2015 |issue=10 |first3=George W. |volume=105 |publisher=[[American Phytopathological Society]] |journal=[[Phytopathology (journal)|Phytopathology]] |issn=0031-949X |last1=Förster |first1=Helga |last2=McGhee |first2=Gayle C. |last3=Sundin |last4=Adaskaveg |title=Characterization of Streptomycin Resistance in Isolates of ''Erwinia amylovora'' in California |doi=10.1094/phyto-03-15-0078-r |pages=1302–1310 |s2cid=23508951 |pmid=26413887|doi-access=free }}
*{{cite journal |date=2018 |volume=56 |issue=1 |first1=George W. |publisher=[[Annual Reviews (publisher)|Annual Reviews]] |journal=[[Annual Review of Phytopathology]] |issn=0066-4286 |last1=Sundin |last2=Wang |first2=Nian |title=Antibiotic Resistance in Plant-Pathogenic Bacteria |doi=10.1146/annurev-phyto-080417-045946 |pages=161–180 |pmid=29856934 |s2cid=46918802}}
*{{cite journal |date=2018 |first2=Dwayne |issue=5 |volume=10 |publisher=[[MDPI]] |journal=[[Viruses (journal)|Viruses]] |issn=1999-4915 |first3=Alan |last1=Svircev |first1=Antonet |last2=Roach |last3=Castle |title=Framing the Future with Bacteriophages in Agriculture |doi=10.3390/v10050218 |page=218 |pmid=29693561 |pmc=5977211 |s2cid=13813822 |doi-access=free}}<!--- Published by MDPI but cited by Singh & Yadav 2020, Luong et al., 2020, Holtappels et al., 2020, ... --->
*{{cite journal |date=2016 |issue=9 |volume=17 |first1=George W. |publisher=[[Wiley-Blackwell]] |journal=[[Molecular Plant Pathology]] |issn=1464-6722 |last4=Zeng |last3=Yuan |last1=Sundin |last2=Castiblanco |first2=Luisa F. |first3=Xiaochen |first4=Quan |last5=Yang |first5=Ching-Hong |title=Bacterial disease management: challenges, experience, innovation and future prospects |doi=10.1111/mpp.12436 |pages=1506–1518 |s2cid=206197845 |pmid=27238249 |pmc=6638406}}
</ref> first found in the state's pear [[microbial isolate|isolates]] by Miller & Schroth 1972.<ref name="antibiotic">{{cite journal |year=2002 |issue=1 |volume=40 |publisher=[[Annual Reviews (publisher)|Annual Reviews]] |first4=Alan |first3=George |first2=Virginia |first1=Patricia |last4=Jones |last2=Stockwell |last3=Sundin |last1=McManus |journal=[[Annual Review of Phytopathology]] |issn=0066-4286 |pages=443–465 |doi=10.1146/annurev.phyto.40.120301.093927 |title=Antibiotic Use in Plant Agriculture |pmid=12147767}}</ref> This disease is a problem of pomes, including pear.<ref name="Fire-resist" /> See {{section link||Streptomycin}} and {{section link||Pear}}.

{{visible anchor|Podosphaera aphanis|Powdery mildew of strawberry|text=''[[Podosphaera]] [[Podosphaera aphanis|aphanis]]''}} is the cause of powdery mildew of strawberry.<ref name="Sensitivity"/> It has [[fungicide resistance evolution|evolved strong resistance]] here.<ref name="Sensitivity"/> Palmer & Holmes 2021 find resistance to the majority of the most commonly applied ingredients in the [[Oxnard, California|Oxnard]] population.<ref name="Sensitivity">
*{{cite journal |date=2021 |publisher=[[Taylor & Francis]] |issue=3 |pages=273–297 |volume=97 |journal=[[Journal of Horticultural Science and Biotechnology]] |issn=1462-0316 |last1=Menzel |first1=Christopher Michael |title=A review of powdery mildew in strawberries: the resistance of species, hybrids and cultivars to the pathogen is highly variable within and across studies with no standard method for assessing the disease |doi=10.1080/14620316.2021.1985402 |s2cid=245346271}}
*{{cite journal |first1=Angela |year=2021 |volume=149 |publisher=[[Elsevier]] |journal=[[Crop Protection (journal)|Crop Protection]] |issn=0261-2194 |last1=Berrie |last2=Xu |first2=Xiangming |title=Developing biopesticide-based programmes for managing powdery mildew in protected strawberries in the UK |doi=10.1016/j.cropro.2021.105766 |page=105766 |bibcode=2021CrPro.14905766B |s2cid=237668708}}
These reviews cite this research.
*{{cite journal |date=2021 |last1=Palmer |issue=9 |pages=2601–2605 |volume=105 |last2=Holmes |publisher=[[American Phytopathological Society]] |first1=Michael G. |journal=[[Plant Disease (journal)|Plant Disease]] |issn=0191-2917 |first2=Gerald J. |title=Fungicide Sensitivity in Strawberry Powdery Mildew Caused by ''Podosphaera aphanis'' in California |doi=10.1094/pdis-12-20-2604-re |s2cid=230782514 |pmid=33404274|doi-access=free }}
</ref>

{{visible anchor|Armillaria Root Rot|Oak Root Fungus|Armillaria mellea|Armillaria solidipes}} of peach is primarily caused by ''[[Armillaria mellea]]'' and ''[[Armillaria solidipes|A. solidipes]]'' here.<ref name="Global-Distro" /> ''[[Armillaria gallica|A. gallica]]'' and ''[[Armillaria mexicana|A. mexicana]]'' are not thought to be common here, but are common in Mexico.<ref name="Global-Distro">{{cite journal |year=2022 |issue=1 |volume=4 |publisher=[[BioMed Central]] |first4=Antonieta |first1=Chao |last3=Hu |last1=Luo |last2=Schnabel |first2=Guido |first3=Mengjun |last4=De Cal |issn=2524-4167 |journal=[[Phytopathology Research]] |s2cid=251073155 |doi=10.1186/s42483-022-00134-0 |title=Global distribution and management of peach diseases |doi-access=free |hdl=10261/304888 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> (See {{section link||Peach}}.)

''{{visible anchor|Tomato infectious chlorosis virus|text=[[Tomato infectious chlorosis virus]]}}'' afflicts tomato here.<ref name="Advances-in-Virus-Research">{{cite book |year=2014 |volume=90 |publication-place=[[Waltham, Massachusetts]], US |publisher=[[Academic Press]] |series=[[Advances in Virus Research]] |issn=0065-3527 |first1=G. |first2=Nikolaos |last1=Loebenstein |last2=Katis |oclc=899003355 |isbn=978-0-12-801246-8 |id={{ISBN |978-0-12-801264-2}} |title=Control of plant virus diseases: seed-propagated crops}}</ref>{{rp|page=180}} See also {{section link||Tomato}}.

{{Visible anchor|16SrIII-A}} is a [[phytoplasma]] of apricot here.<ref name="plasma" /> Uyemoto ''et al.'', 1991 found it on apricot in California.<ref name="plasma">{{cite journal |year=2009 |issue=5 |volume=141 |first3=Lorne |first2=Thomas |last3=Stobbs |last2=Lowery |last1=Olivier |first1=Chrystel |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |issn=0008-347X |journal=[[The Canadian Entomologist]] |title=Phytoplasma diseases and their relationships with insect and plant hosts in Canadian horticultural and field crops |doi=10.4039/n08-cpa02 |pages=425–462 |s2cid=85039968}}</ref> See {{section link||Apricot}}.

{{Visible anchor|Downy Mildew of Lettuce|Lettuce Downy Mildew|Bremia lactucae}} (''[[Bremia lactucae]]'') is common on lettuce here.<ref name="Practical-Management" />{{rp|page=156}} The population in the country, and especially in this state, is unusual however: It is highly clonal.<ref name="Practical-Management" />{{rp|page=156}} As a result, Brown ''et al.'', 2004 finds all [[microbial isolate|isolates]] have the same [[metalaxyl resistance]].<ref name="Practical-Management">{{cite book |pages=ix+490 |date=2015 |publication-place=[[Tokyo]] |publisher=[[Springer Japan]] |first2=Derek |first1=Hideo |last1=Ishii |last2=Hollomon |oclc=919611866 |lccn=2015949140 |doi=10.1007/978-4-431-55642-8 |id={{isbn |978-4-431-55641-1}} |isbn=978-4-431-55642-8 |title=Fungicide Resistance in Plant Pathogens: Principles and a Guide to Practical Management |s2cid=11518793}}</ref>{{rp|page=156}} See {{section link||Lettuce}}.

Kim ''et al.'', 2015 finds ''{{Visible anchor|Penicillium digitatum|text=[[Penicillium digitatum]]}}'' isolates from citrus here have developed fludioxonil resistance,<ref name="European-Reduced-Reliance">{{cite journal |year=2016 |issue=1 |volume=100 |pages=10–24 |publisher=[[American Phytopathological Society]] |first4=Antoine |first3=Per |issn=0191-2917 |journal=[[Plant Disease (journal)|Plant Disease]] |first1=Jay Ram |last2=Dachbrodt-Saaydeh |first2=Silke |last3=Kudsk |last4=Messéan |last1=Lamichhane |doi=10.1094/pdis-05-15-0574-fe |title=Toward a Reduced Reliance on Conventional Pesticides in European Agriculture |pmid=30688570|doi-access=free }}</ref> see {{section link||Fludioxonil}}. [[Thiabendazole]] (TBZ) is also commonly used in citrus here.<ref name="codon-200" /> Schmidt ''et al.'', 2006 find [[point mutation]]s at [[codon]] 200 conferring [[TBZ resistance]] are common in California.<ref name="codon-200" >
*{{cite book |date=2008 |publication-place=[[Berlin]] |publisher=Springer |last=Narayanasamy |first=P. |doi=10.1007/978-1-4020-8247-4 |oclc=261325778 |title=Molecular Biology in Plant Pathogenesis and Disease Management Vol. 3, Disease management |pages=282–283 |isbn=978-1-4020-8246-7}}
This book cites this research.
*{{cite journal
 |last1=Schmidt |first1=Leigh S. |last2=Ghosoph |first2=Jennifer M. |last3=Margosan
 |first3=Dennis A. |last4=Smilanick |first4=Joseph L. |title=Mutation at β-Tubulin Codon 200 Indicated Thiabendazole Resistance in ''Penicillium digitatum'' Collected from California Citrus Packinghouses |journal=[[Plant Disease (journal)|Plant Disease]] |publisher=[[American Phytopathological Society]] |volume=90 |issue=6 |year=2006 |issn=0191-2917 |doi=10.1094/pd-90-0765 |pages=765–770 |pmid=30781237}}</ref>

{{visible anchor|Karnal Bunt|Tilletia indica|Neovossia indica}} (''[[Tilletia indica]]'', syn. ''Neovossia indica'') has spread from Asia to this continent, and since 1996 has been found in this country.<ref name="Pathology-5" />{{rp|page=592}} It is present in areas of this state, and [[Arizona]] and [[Texas]].<ref name="Pathology-5">
 {{cite book |language=en |year=2005 |edition=5 |pages=xxv+922 |publication-place=[[Burlington, MA]] USA |publisher=[[Academic Press]] |first=George |lccn=2004011924 |oclc=134821046 |isbn=978-0-08-047378-9 |title=Plant Pathology |last=Agrios}}
</ref>{{rp|page=592}}

{{visible anchor|Corn Stunt Disease|Corn Stunt|Spiroplasma kunkelii}} (''[[Spiroplasma kunkelii]]'') affects [[maize|corn]] (maize, ''Zea mays'') here.<ref name="Enemy-Within">{{cite journal |year=2018 |volume=19 |issue=1 |first2=Jennier |first1=Claire |last2=Lewis |pages=238–254 |last1=Bendix |publisher=[[Wiley-Blackwell]] |journal=[[Molecular Plant Pathology]] |doi=10.1111/mpp.12526 |title=The enemy within: phloem-limited pathogens |pmid=27997761 |pmc=6638166}}
</ref>

<!--- This should probably always be towards the bottom of the section due to its limited and discontinuous range here, despite being discovered here. --->{{visible anchor|Sudden Oak Death|Phytophthora ramorum}} (''[[Phytophthora ramorum]]'') is a widespread disease of oaks here and in Oregon, and is also found in Europe.<ref name="Genetics-Evolution-Infectious-Diseases" /> It was first discovered in the 1990s on the [[California Central Coast|Central Coast]]<ref name="Anderson-et-al-2004">{{cite journal |last1=Anderson |first1=Pamela K. |last2=Cunningham |first2=Andrew A. |last3=Patel |first3=Nikkita G. |last4=Morales |first4=Francisco J. |last5=Epstein |first5=Paul R. |last6=Daszak |first6=Peter |title=Emerging infectious diseases of plants: pathogen pollution, climate change and agrotechnology drivers |journal=[[Trends in Ecology & Evolution]] |publisher=[[Cell Press]] |volume=19 |issue=10 |year=2004 |issn=0169-5347 |doi=10.1016/j.tree.2004.07.021 |pages=535–544 |pmid=16701319 |s2cid=12006626}}</ref> and was quickly [[Phytophthora ramorum in Oregon|found in Oregon]] as well.<ref name="Rizzo-et-al-2005">{{cite journal |last1=Rizzo |first1=David M. |last2=Garbelotto |first2=Matteo |last3=Hansen |first3=Everett M. |title=''Phytophthora ramorum'': Integrative Research and Management of an Emerging Pathogen in California and Oregon Forests |journal=[[Annual Review of Phytopathology]] |publisher=[[Annual Reviews (publisher)|Annual Reviews]] |volume=43 |issue=1 |date=September 1, 2005 |issn=0066-4286 |doi=10.1146/annurev.phyto.42.040803.140418 |pages=309–335 |s2cid=33214324 |pmid=16078887}}</ref> ''P. ramorum'' is of economic concern due to its infestation of ''[[Rubus]]'' and ''[[Vaccinium]]'' spp.<ref name="Rizzo-et-al-2005" /> All [[microbial isolate|isolates]] here and throughout North America have been of the [[Phytophthora ramorum A2|A2]] mating type and [[genetic analysis]] suggests that although it was discovered here, the pathogen originated elsewhere.<ref name="Rizzo-et-al-2005" />

''{{visible anchor|Phytophthora fragariae}}'' is a common disease of strawberry here.<ref name="Mathey"/> Weg 1997 shows that the [[crop disease resistance gene|resistance gene]] ''{{visible anchor|Rpf1}}'' is in a [[gene-for-gene]] relationship.<ref name="Mathey"/> Mathey 2013 shows that ''Rpf1'' is responsible for most resistance in the Watsonville and Oxnard environments and provides a DNA test to predict performance.<ref name="Mathey">
*{{cite journal |year=2020 |issue=1 |volume=7 |publisher=[[Nature Portfolio]] |journal=[[Horticulture Research]] |issn=2662-6810 |last1=Iezzoni |first1=Amy |last2=McFerson |first2=Jim |last3=Luby |first3=James |last4=Gasic |first4=Ksenija |last5=Whitaker |first5=Vance |last6=Bassil |first6=Nahla |last7=Yue |first7=Chengyan |last8=Gallardo |first8=Karina |last9=McCracken |first9=Vicki |last10=Coe |first10=Michael |last11=Hardner |first11=Craig |last12=Zurn |first12=Jason |last13=Hokanson |first13=Stan |last14=Weg |first14=Eric |last15=Jung |first15=Sook |last16=Main |first16=Dorrie |last17=Silva Linge |first17=Cassia |last18=Vanderzande |first18=Stijn |last19=Davis |first19=Thomas |last20=Mahoney |first20=Lise |last21=Finn |first21=Chad |last22=Peace |first22=Cameron |title=RosBREED: bridging the chasm between discovery and application to enable DNA-informed breeding in rosaceous crops |doi=10.1038/s41438-020-00398-7 |s2cid=226217178 |page=177 |pmid=33328430 |pmc=7603521|bibcode=2020HorR....7..177I }}
This review cites this research.
*{{cite thesis |date=2013 |type=MS |publisher=[[Oregon State University]] |url=https://ir.library.oregonstate.edu/concern/graduate_thesis_or_dissertations/df65vb56v |last=Mathey |first=Megan |title=Phenotyping diverse strawberry (''Fragaria'' spp.) germplasm for aid in marker- assisted breeding, and marker-trait association for red stele (''Phytophthora fragariae'') resistance marker ''Rpf1''}}
</ref> No tests are available for [[Phytophthora fragariae var. fragariae|''Phytophthora fragariae'' var. ''fragariae'']].<ref name="handling"/> FPS recommends diagnosis by visual inspection.<ref name="handling"/>

''[[Apple mosaic virus]]'', ''[[Arabis mosaic virus]]''  and ''[[Tomato ringspot virus]]'' are common pathogens in strawberry.<ref>{{cite web |access-date=February 16, 2023 |title=Foundation Plant Services |website=[[Foundation Plant Services]] |url=https://fps.ucdavis.edu/strawberrytesting.cfm}}</ref>

''[[Raspberry ringspot virus]]'' is a common pathogen in California.<ref name="handling">{{Cite web |access-date=2023-04-04 |title=Handling |website=[[UC Statewide IPM Program]] |url=https://ipm.ucanr.edu/agriculture/strawberry/handling-strawberry-transplants/}}</ref> Diagnosis is performed by cross infection of one of the [[alternate host]]s which are [[herbaceous]].<ref name="handling" />

''[[Strawberry feather leaf virus]]'' is a common pathogen.<ref name="handling"/> [[Foundation Plant Services]] (FPS) offers testing via leaf graft.<ref>{{cite web |access-date=2023-04-05 |title=Strawberry Pathogen Testing |website=University of California, Davis [[Foundation Plant Services]] |url=https://fps.ucdavis.edu/strawberrytesting.cfm}}</ref>

Hosts of ''[[Strawberry latent C virus]]'' include strawberry.<ref name="handling" />

''[[Strawberry latent ringspot virus]]'' is diagnosed by cross infection of one of the [[alternate host]]s which are [[herbaceous]] or by [[polymerase chain reaction]] (PCR).<ref name="handling" />

''[[Strawberry leaf roll disease]]'' is a common pathogen.<ref name="handling" />

''[[Strawberry mild yellow edge virus]]'' is diagnosed by cross infection of a test strawberry or by [[polymerase chain reaction]] (PCR).<ref name="handling"/>

Hosts of ''[[Strawberry mottle virus]]'' include strawberry.<ref name="handling" />

''[[Strawberry pallidosis associated virus]]'' is diagnosed by cross infection of a test strawberry or by [[polymerase chain reaction]] (PCR).<ref name="handling"/> It is one of several viuses causing [[Pallidosis Related Decline of Strawberry]].<ref name="uccesb" >{{cite book |access-date=2023-04-06 |url=https://cesantabarbara.ucanr.edu/Strawberry_Production/Strawberry_Manual_English_-_Spanish/ |first1=Mark |first5=Kevin |edition=2 |date=November 2015 |title=Strawberry Production Manual For Growers on the Central Coast |website=[[University of California Cooperative Extension, Santa Barbara County]] |last1=Bolda |first2=Surendra |last2=Dara |first3=Julie |last3=Fallon |first4=Misael |last4=Sanchez |last5=Peterson}}</ref>{{rp | 68}}

Diagnosis of ''[[Strawberry vein banding virus]]'' is performed by cross infection of an herbaceous alternate host or by PCR.<ref name="handling" />

''[[Tobacco necrosis virus]]'' is diagnosed by cross infection of an herbaceous alternate host.<ref name="handling" /> [[Biosecurity Australia]] considers its presence here cause for concern for Australian stonefruit growers.<ref name="aus" >{{Cite web |url=https://www.agriculture.gov.au/biosecurity-trade/policy/risk-analysis/plant/stonefruit-usa |author=[[Biosecurity Australia]] |year=2010 |title=Provisional final import risk analysis report for fresh stone fruit from California, Idaho, Oregon and Washington |location=[[Canberra]]}}</ref>

Hosts of ''[[Tobacco streak virus]]'' include strawberry.<ref name="handling"/>

Diagnosis of ''[[Tomato black ring virus]]'' is performed by cross infection of an herbaceous alternate host.<ref name="handling"/>

''[[Tomato bushy stunt virus]]'' is a common pathogen of several [[horticultural crop]]s here.<ref name="handling"/>

''[[Tomato ringspot virus]]'' is diagnosed by cross infection of an herbaceous alternate host.<ref name="handling"/> Hosts include strawberry.<ref name="trv" >{{Cite web |access-date=2023-04-09 |title=Handling |website=[[UC Statewide IPM Program]] |url=https://ipm.ucanr.edu/agriculture/strawberry/handling-strawberry-transplants/}}</ref>

Hosts of ''[[Xanthomonas fragariae]]'' include strawberry.<ref name="handling"/>

''[[Aphelenchoides besseyi]]'' is a common horticultural nematode disease in California.<ref name="handling"/>

''[[Barley/Cereal yellow dwarf virus]]'' (''B/CYDV'') harms native [[bunchgrass]]es more than an [[invasive plant|invasive]] grass, aiding the invasion.<ref name="Current-Research-Topics" >{{Cite book |date=2016 |publication-place=[[Switzerland]] |publisher=[[Springer Publishing]] |editor-first1=Aiming |editor-first2=Xueping |editor-last1=Wang |editor-last2=Zhou |title=[[Current Research Topics in Plant Virology]] |doi=10.1007/978-3-319-32919-2 |oclc=953456499 |s2cid=30788167 |page=203 |isbn=978-3-319-32919-2}}</ref>

''[[Tomato necrotic dwarf virus]]'' is originally known from [[Imperial County]].<ref name="Torr" >{{Cite journal |issue=1 |date=2015 |volume=53 |last1=Vlugt |first1=Rene |last2=Verbeek |first2=Martin |last3=Dullemans |first3=Annette |last4=Wintermantel |first4=William |last5=Cuellar |first5=Wilmer |last6=Fox |first6=Adrian |last7=Thompson |first7=Jeremy |title=Torradoviruses |publisher=[[Annual Reviews (publisher)|Annual Reviews]] |journal=[[Annual Review of Phytopathology]] |issn=0066-4286 |doi=10.1146/annurev-phyto-080614-120021 |pages=485–512 |pmid=26047567|doi-access=free }}</ref>

More than 1 virus is usually present in any strawberry plant which has progressed to [[symptom]]atic infection.<ref name="Strategic Plan">{{cite web |access-date=2023-04-12 |date=2022 |title=2021 Pest Management Strategic Plan for Strawberry in California |website=[[Regional Integrated Pest Management Centers]] Database |url=https://ipmdata.ipmcenters.org/source_report.cfm?view=yes&sourceid=2468}}</ref>

''[[Lettuce Mosaic Virus]]'' has caused severe losses at times up to 100%.<ref name="Detection-Diagnosis-Management" >
{{Cite book |language=en |year=2020 |publisher=[[Springer Nature Singapore]] |editor-last1=Kumar |editor-first1=Ravindra |editor-last2=Gupta |editor-first2=Anuja |title=Seed-Borne Diseases of Agricultural Crops: Detection, Diagnosis & Management |doi=10.1007/978-981-32-9046-4 |isbn=978-981-32-9045-7 |s2cid=218682899}}</ref>{{RP|282}}

==Insurance==
As with the entire country there is [[USDA]] subsidized [[crop insurance]] for the state.<ref name="RMA" /> The [[Risk Management Agency]] provides various insurance schemes and deadlines by [[counties of California|County]] and by crop.<ref name="RMA">{{cite web |title=California |website=[[Risk Management Agency]] |url=http://www.rma.usda.gov/en/RMALocal/California |access-date=May 7, 2022}}</ref>

{{anchor|Research|Testing|Propagation material|Germplasm}}

==Research, testing, and propagation material==
[[File:NRCSCA97015 - California (1361)(NRCS Photo Gallery).tif|thumb|[[Fresno State University|FSU]] researcher and [[Hmong people|Hmong]] farmer]]
{{visible anchor|Foundation Plant Services}}<ref name="UCD-FPS">{{cite web |title=Foundation Plant Services |website=[[Foundation Plant Services]], [[UC Davis]] |url=http://fps.ucdavis.edu/ |access-date=July 2, 2022}}</ref> (FPS) is a part of [[UC Davis College of Agricultural and Environmental Sciences|UCD's College of Agriculture]] which serves the [[horticultural]] industries. FPS performs several services including testing for [[crop disease|diseases]] (especially [[viral crop disease|viral diseases]]), identifying [[cultivar|varieties]] of unknown plant samples, and supplying cuttings ([[vegetative propagation]] material) from [[in situ]] individuals they maintain.<ref name="UCD-FPS" /> They use a library of published [[Simple Sequence Repeat]]s (SSRs) known to be relevant to the state's strawberry industry to identify those varieties specifically.<ref name="Whitaker-2011" /> {{visible anchor|California Seed & Plant Lab}} is an even more active, private molecular lab for the strawberry industry.<ref name="Whitaker-2011" /> CS&PL tests for clients here and around the world.<ref name="Whitaker-2011" />

California's experiences with the Vine mealybug, Glassy-winged sharp-shooter, and Pierce's disease have informed the process of creating [[epidemiological model|geographic models]] for the spread of pests and diseases and their management in [[viticulture]] around the world.<ref name="Arthropod-Management">{{cite book |pages=xvi+505 |publication-place=[[Dordrecht]] |last2=Vincent |first3=Rufus |last3=Isaacs |first2=Charles |last1=Bostanian |first1=Noubar J. |title=Arthropod Management in Vineyards: Pests, Approaches, and Future Directions |date=June 26, 2012 |isbn=978-94-007-4032-7 |oclc=798568502 |id={{isbn |978-94-007-4031-0}}. {{isbn |978-94-007-9436-8}}}}</ref>{{rp|page=43}} See {{section link||Glassy-winged sharpshooter}} and {{section link||Pierce's Disease}}.

{{as of|2022}} Professor Juan Pablo Giraldo ([[University of California, Riverside|UCR]]) has been making great progress since 2013 in [[nanomaterial]]s applied to crops.<ref name="Nano">{{cite journal |year=2022 |issue=1 |last2=Li |last1=Wu |first2=Zhaohu |first1=Honghong |publisher=[[Elsevier BV]] |issn=2214-5141 |journal=The Crop Journal |volume=10 |pages=1–12 |s2cid=237750690 |doi=10.1016/j.cj.2021.06.002 |title=Recent advances in nano-enabled agriculture for improving plant performance|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name="readinessovercomingnano">{{cite journal |year=2020 |volume=1 |issue=7 |publisher=[[Nature Portfolio]] |first17=Kevin |first16=Jason |first15=Jason |first14=Joel |first13=Mathews |first11=Wess |first10=Patricia |first9=Joseph |first8=Juan |first7=Leanne |first6=John |first5=Davide |first4=Nathalie |first2=Gregory |last17=Wilkinson |last16=White |last14=Pedersen |last11=Lovell |last10=Landry |last8=Giraldo |last7=Gilbertson |last6=Dutcher |last2=Lowry ` |issn=2662-1355 |journal=[[Nature Food]] |last15=Unrine |first1=Thilo |last13=Paret |first12=Rafik |last9=Kinsella |last5=Brambilla |last4=Tufenkji |author4-link=Nathalie Tufenkji|first3=Subhasis |last3=Ghoshal |last12=Naccache |last1=Hofmann |pages=416–425 |doi=10.1038/s43016-020-0110-1 |title=Technology readiness and overcoming barriers to sustainably implement nanotechnology-enabled plant agriculture |s2cid=221095176}}</ref>

The [[University of California]] is one of the two institutions claiming ownership of the [[CRISPR/Cas9]] patent.<ref name="geneeditingpost"/> This technique has great promise for genetic improvement of agricultural organisms.<ref name="geneeditingpost"/> What ever the outcome of the [[patent litigation]], a [[patent license|license]] from UC or the [[Broad Institute]] or both may be required to produce such products in the future.<ref name="geneeditingpost">{{cite journal |year=2021 |issue=1 |volume=8 |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |first5=Diane |first4=Karin |first3=Jiaqi |first2=Jingwei |first1=Emma |last5=Beckles |last4=Albornoz |last3=Zhou |last2=Yu |last1=Shipman |title=Can gene editing reduce postharvest waste and loss of fruit, vegetables, and ornamentals? |journal=[[Horticulture Research]] |page=1 |issn=2662-6810 |doi=10.1038/s41438-020-00428-4 |pmid=33384412 |pmc=7775472|bibcode=2021HorR....8....1S }}</ref>

{{anchor|Farmworker|Farmworkers}}
[[File:20181114-FPAC-LSC-0078.jpg|thumb|[[Mexicans in California|Mexican]] farmworker learning additional skills in [[Salinas, California|Salinas]], 2018]]

==Labor==
{{see also|Farmworkers in the United States}}
The {{visible anchor|UC Davis Farm Labor|text=[[UC Davis]] Farm Labor}} program studies the state's farmworkers and provides information about them.<ref name="UCD-labor">{{cite web |access-date=November 6, 2022 |date=2021 |title=Farm Labor |website=[[University of California, Davis]] |url=https://farmlabor.ucdavis.edu/}}</ref>

The [[union organizing]] campaign of [[César Chávez]] and its impact on the industry has become a well known chapter in American history.<ref name="Chavez">{{cite book |year=2006 |pages=208 |first=Marco |publication-place=[[Tucson, Arizona]], USA |publisher=[[University of Arizona Press]] |last=Prouty |oclc=609288779 |isbn=978-0-8165-4986-3 |title=César Chávez, the Catholic Bishops, and the Farmworkers' Struggle for Social Justice}}</ref>{{rp|page=63}} His movement was also joined by [[artist]]s such as famed theater and film director [[Luis Valdéz]].<ref name="Latino-America">{{cite book |language=en |date=2008 |pages=xxiii+957 |first=Mark |publisher=[[Bloomsbury Publishing]] |id={{isbn |9780313341168}} |oclc=428815591 |isbn=978-1-57356-980-4 |title=Latino America: A State-by-State Encyclopedia |publication-place=[[Westport, Conn.]], US |last=Overmyer-Velázquez}}</ref>{{rp|92}} [[Ecofeminist]]s have supported the [[United Farm Workers]]' strikes including Chávez's [[Grape boycott]], especially for their positions on pesticides.<ref name="contradictions">{{cite book |year=2018 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |first=Ellen |last=O'Loughlin |pages=680–688 |title=Living with Contradictions |isbn=9780429499142}}</ref>

Despite the [[Immigration Reform and Control Act of 1986]], Taylor & Thilmany 1992 found that the state's farmers did not reduce their hiring of [[illegal immigrants in California|illegal immigrants]] as farmworkers.<ref name="IRCA">
*{{cite journal |year=1992 |first2=Dawn |first1=Edward |issue=5 |volume=46 |last2=Thilmany |last1=Taylor |publisher=[[University of California Division of Agriculture and Natural Resources]] |journal=[[California Agriculture]] |issn=0008-0845 |s2cid=73723920 |doi=10.3733/ca.v046n05p4 |title=Effects of immigration reform not as expected: California farmers still rely on new immigrants for field labor |pages=4–6|doi-broken-date=November 1, 2024 |doi-access=free }}
*{{cite journal |year=1993 |first2=Marvin |first1=Ian |issue=2 |volume=3 |last2=Pritts |last1=Merwin |publisher=[[American Society for Horticultural Science]] |journal=[[HortTechnology]] |issn=1063-0198 |pages=128–136 |s2cid=86309378 |doi=10.21273/horttech.3.2.128 |title=Are Modern Fruit Production Systems Sustainable?|doi-access=free }}
</ref> Indeed, illegal immigration inflows increased in the 1990s.<ref name="H-2A">{{cite journal |title=Proposed changes to the H-2A program would affect labor costs in the United States and California |year=2022 |issue=3 |volume=75 |first2=Zachariah |first1=Philip |last2=Rutledge |last1=Martin |pages=135–141 |doi=10.3733/ca.2021a0020 |publisher=[[University of California Division of Agriculture and Natural Resources]] |journal=[[California Agriculture]] |s2cid=245713178 |issn=0008-0845|doi-access=free }}</ref>

In addition to advising producers, the Statewide Integrated Pest Management program ([[UC IPM]]) began training farmworkers in 1988.<ref name="Dimensions-Issues">{{cite book |edition=2 |access-date=July 25, 2022 |year=2021 |publisher=University of California [[Giannini Foundation of Agricultural Economics]] |url=https://giannini.ucop.edu/publications/cal-ag-book/ |isbn=978-0-578-71524-7 |title=California Agriculture: Dimensions and Issues}}</ref>{{rp|382}}

By the late 1990s the large immigrant population had expanded the [[workforce]], reduced [[wage]]s and [[working time]] per worker.<ref name="Latinization">{{cite journal |year=1998 |issue=1 |volume=29 |publisher=[[Community Development Society]] |issn=0010-3829 |journal=[[Journal of the Community Development Society]] |first2=Refugio |first1=Elaine |last2=Rochin |last1=Allensworth |pages=119–145 |doi=10.1080/15575339809489776 |title=The Latinization of Rural Places in California: Growing Immiseration or Latino Power?}}</ref>{{rp|122}} The [[reanalysis]] of Khan ''et al.'', 2004 finds that increased production of labor demanding crops increases agricultural [[labor demand]], but does not necessarily have to because the same workers could have been hired to perform more hours.<ref name="expandlaborintens">{{cite journal |issue=January–March 2004 |first3=Phil |first2=Philip |last2=Martin |pages=35–39 |last3=Hardiman |first1=Akhtar |last1=Khan |publisher=[[University of California Division of Agriculture and Natural Resources]] |journal=[[California Agriculture]] |issn=0008-0845 |s2cid=85153422 |id={{s2cid |55205815}} |doi=10.3733/CA.V058N01P35 |title=Expanded production of labor-intensive crops increases agricultural employment |year=2004 |volume=58|doi-access=free }}</ref> For many decades the [[Immigration and Naturalization Service]] (INS) and [[U.S. Customs and Border Protection|Customs and Border Protection]] (CBP) left farmworkers alone.<ref name="Illegal" /> INS and then CBP chose not to do any significant enforcement in agriculture, [[United States hospitality industry|hospitality]], or [[United States construction industry|construction]].<ref name="Illegal">{{cite journal |year=2006 |issue=4 |volume=44 |publisher=[[American Economic Association]] |issn=0022-0515 |journal=[[Journal of Economic Literature]] |last1=Hanson |first1=Gordon H. |s2cid=145485291 |doi=10.1257/jel.44.4.869 |pages=869–924 |title=Illegal Migration from Mexico to the United States |url=http://papers.nber.org/papers/w12141.pdf}}</ref> Especially in the [[Northern Sacramento Valley]] and [[Southern San Joaquin Valley]], farmworkers had risen to a high [[ratio|proportion]] of the population by 2013.<ref name="2013-intro">{{cite report |date=October 2013 |first2=Matthew K. |first1=Patrick |author3=[[California Research Bureau]] |publisher=[[California State Library]] & [[California Latino Legislative Caucus]] |last2=Buttice |last1=Rogers |url=https://latinocaucus.legislature.ca.gov/sites/latinocaucus.legislature.ca.gov/files/CRB%20Report%20on%20Farmworkers%20in%20CA%20S-13-017.pdf |title=Farmworkers in California: A Brief Introduction |id=S-13-017}}</ref>

Despite the passage of the [[California Agricultural Labor Relations Act of 1975]], by 2012 unions were less popular with farmworkers than they had been before it was passed.<ref name="laborrelations2012">{{cite journal |first=Philip |last=Martin |year=2012 |title=Labor Relations in California Agriculture: Review and Outlook |journal=[[Agricultural and Resource Economics Update]] |volume=15 |issue=3 |pages=5–8 |publisher=University of California [[Giannini Foundation of Agricultural Economics]]}}</ref>

The Borello 1988 decision classifies strawberry sharecroppers as [[independent contractor]]s.<ref name="Gender" >{{Cite journal |year=2015 |issue=4 |volume=40 |publisher=[[University of Chicago Press]] |last=Sanchez |first=Teresa |pages=917–938 |title=Gendered Sharecropping: Waged and Unwaged Mexican Immigrant Labor in the California Strawberry Fields |journal=[[Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society]] |doi=10.1086/680329 |s2cid=154912946 |issn=0097-9740 |url=https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/abs/10.1086/680329}}</ref>

Even when immigration was unrestricted, strawberry growers felt in 2017 that [[labor supply]] was still too tight.<ref name="Paradox">{{cite journal |year=2016 |issue=1 |volume=93 |first=Julie |publisher=[[Routledge]] |issn=0013-0095 |journal=[[Economic Geography]] |last=Guthman |pages=24–43 |title=Paradoxes of the Border: Labor Shortages and Farmworker Minor Agency in Reworking California's Strawberry Fields |s2cid=157028737 |doi=10.1080/00130095.2016.1180241}} {{cite journal |year=2019 |issue=6 |volume=44 |publisher=[[SAGE Publications]] |last=Strauss |first=Kendra |issn=0309-1325 |journal=[[Progress in Human Geography]] |pages=1212–1224 |title=Labour geography III: Precarity, racial capitalisms and infrastructure |s2cid=213279174 |doi=10.1177/0309132519895308}}</ref> Farmers here were solid supporters of candidate and then [[President Trump]], but were quickly surprised by the rhetoric of the administration due to the labor situation in the industry.<ref name="Surprise">{{cite news |newspaper=[[The New York Times]] |date=February 9, 2017 |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2017/02/09/us/california-farmers-backed-trump-but-now-fear-losing-field-workers.html |title=California Farmers Backed Trump, but Now Fear Losing Field Workers |first2=Jennifer |last2=Medina |first1=Caitlin |last1=Dickerson}}</ref> As late as 2017 the illegal workforce was still [[forecasting|projected]] to grow.<ref name="2017projection" /> A [[Pew Research Center]] analysis by Passel & Cohn expected continued lax enforcement to produce a continued population boom, including among California's agricultural workers.<ref name="2017projection">{{cite web |year=2017 |title=Immigration projected to drive growth in U.S. working-age population through at least 2035 |url=https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2017/03/08/immigration-projected-to-drive-growth-in-u-s-working-age-population-through-at-least-2035/ |publisher=[[Pew Research Center]] |first1=Jeffrey S. |last1=Passel |first2=D'Vera |last2=Cohn}}</ref> During and after the escalated [[deportation and removal from the United States|deportation raids]] the lack of normal labor opened opportunities for others.<ref name="Meiners" /> Many high school students with farmworker family members quit school to join them in the fields.<ref name="Meiners">{{cite news |year=2022 |first=Joan |last=Meiners |journal=[[Arizona Republic]] |url=https://www.azcentral.com/story/news/local/arizona-environment/2022/10/12/climate-change-could-raise-produce-prices-slow-food-justice-fight/8237328001/ |title=Climate change could push produce prices higher, slowing the fight for food justice}}</ref>

Some [[farmworker]]s here are not employed here all year but instead travel to other agricultural employment while California is in the off season.<ref name="IFSsetca">{{cite web |access-date=August 28, 2022 |year=2022 |title=Settlements in California |website=[[Indigenous Farmworker Study]] |url=http://www.indigenousfarmworkers.org/settlementCA.shtml}}</ref>

Although the entire tomato harvest was performed by laborers until recently, machines for harvest have been developed.<ref name="Machines" /> The harvest of processing tomatoes is now entirely done by machines.<ref name="Machines" /> The fresh tomato market still must be supplied by laborers however.<ref name="Machines">{{cite journal |year=2022 |first2=Alastair |first1=Patrick |last2=Iles |last1=Baur |title=Replacing humans with machines: a historical look at technology politics in California agriculture |journal=Agriculture and Human Values |volume=40 |pages=113–140 |publisher=[[Springer Science and Business Media]] |issn=0889-048X |doi=10.1007/s10460-022-10341-2 |s2cid=250515385}}</ref> See {{section link||Tomatoes}}. Just before the 2018 deportations began, in 2017 [[strawberry picker]]s earned ~$150/day or ~$18.75/hour.<ref name="Nickelsburg-2017">{{cite web |access-date=September 11, 2022 |year=2017 |website=[[Chicago Tribune]] |last=Nickelsburg |first=Jerry |url=https://www.chicagotribune.com/opinion/commentary/ct-strawberry-workers-immigration-mexico-perspec-20170504-story.html |title=Strawberry fields forever — unless immigration policy intrudes}}</ref>

The right [[personal protective equipment]] is required for fumigant applicators and those working nearby.<ref name="nonfum" /> Practices and training and provided by the [[California Department of Pesticide Regulation|state Department of Pesticide Regulation]].<ref name="nonfum">{{cite web |year=2013 |pages=iii+34 |first6=Nita |first5=Paul |first4=Matt |first3=Marshall |first2=Nan |first1=Brian |last6=Davidson |last3=Lee |last5=Verke |last4=Fossen |last2=Gorder |last1=Leahy |publisher=[[California Department of Pesticide Regulation]] |url=http://www.cdpr.ca.gov/docs/pestmgt/strawberry/work_group/action_plan.pdf |title=Nonfumigant Strawberry Production Working Group Action Plan}}</ref>

{{as of|2019}}, 9% of all [[unauthorized immigrants in California]] are employed in this industry.<ref name="migrationpolicy">{{cite web |access-date=October 8, 2022 |date=2019 |website=[[Migration Policy Institute]] |url=https://www.migrationpolicy.org/programs/us-immigration-policy-program-data-hub/unauthorized-immigrant-population-profiles |title=Unauthorized Immigrant Population Profiles}}</ref>

Enforcement of state laws and regulations regarding farm labor and pesticides is the responsibility of the {{visible anchor|County Agricultural Commissioner}}s.<ref name="manageanalyze">{{cite book |date=2018 |pages=xv+576 |publication-place=[[Washington, DC]], US |series=[[ACS Symposium Series]] |issn=0097-6156 |publisher=[[American Chemical Society]] Division of Agrochemicals ([[Oxford University Press]]) |first4=Michael |first3=Mark |first2=Scott |first1=Minghua |last3=Robertson |last2=Jackson |last1=Zhang |last4=Zeiss |number=1283 |oclc=1045640106 |lccn=2018025937 |id={{isbn |9780841232907}}. {{LCCN |2018034681}} |doi=10.1021/bk-2018-1283 |isbn=9780841232891 |title=Managing and Analyzing Pesticide Use Data for Pest Management, Environmental Monitoring, Public Health, and Public Policy}}</ref>{{rp|19}}

Harrison & Getz 2015 study [[organic agriculture|organic]] fruit and vegetable workers here and find that working conditions generally improve with increasing farm size.<ref name="framing">{{cite journal |year=2017 |issue=1 |volume=42 |publisher=[[Annual Reviews (publisher)|Annual Reviews]] |journal=[[Annual Review of Environment and Resources]] |issn=1543-5938 |last6=Lovell |last4=Cohen |last3=Baird |first7=Elissa |first6=Robin |first5=Kelsey |first3=Graeme |first2=Timothy |first1=Carol |last7=Olimpi |last5=Forbush |first4=Hamutahl |last2=Krupnik |last1=Shennan |pages=317–346 |doi=10.1146/annurev-environ-110615-085750 |title=Organic and Conventional Agriculture: A Useful Framing? |s2cid=157859275|url=https://escholarship.org/uc/item/7hg3z3h5 }}</ref> Stockton ''et al.'', 2017's meta analysis shows workers were earning two-thirds of the average [[List of people from California|Californian]] due to a combination of low wages and [[underemployment]].<ref name="employearn2015">{{cite journal |date=April–June 2017 |number=2 |volume=72 |pages=107–113 |first3=Marc |first2=Brandon |first1=Philip |last3=Stockton |last2=Hooker |last1=Martin |title=Employment and earnings of California farmworkers in 2015 |doi=10.3733/ca.2017a0043 |journal=[[California Agriculture]] |s2cid=90789787|doi-access=free }}</ref>

Hundreds of thousands of members of native Mexican ethnics are estimated to live in the state as farmworkers.<ref name="LA-map-ind">{{cite news |access-date=August 28, 2022 |year=2021 |first=Leila |last=Miller |newspaper=[[Los Angeles Times]] |url=https://www.latimes.com/california/story/2021-07-07/la-me-indigenous-map-los-angeles |title=Zapotec in 90006, K'iche' in 90057: New map highlights L.A.'s Indigenous communities}}</ref>

The state [[California Department of Industrial Relations|Department of Industrial Relations]] (DIR)<ref name="CDIR">{{cite web |url=https://www.dir.ca.gov/ |title=California Department of Industrial Relations |publisher=[[California Department of Industrial Relations]]}}</ref> regulates and provides information for workers and employers. DIR's [[Labor Enforcement Task Force]] (LETF) enforces such requirements as [[overtime]].<ref name="ProtectPrevent" >{{Cite web |access-date=2023-04-16 |title=Protect Your Business—Prevent Penalties |url=https://www.dir.ca.gov/letf/Agriculture_Employer_Brochure.pdf}}</ref> UCANR and UCCE also provide information for employers' business planning.<ref name="UClabor">{{cite web |access-date=October 31, 2022 |title=Labor and Personnel Management - Farm Business and Market Place |publisher=[[Division of Agriculture and Natural Resources, University of California]] & [[University of California Cooperative Extension]] |url=https://ucanr.edu/sites/FarmBus/Planning_-_Management/Labor_Information/}}</ref>

During 2021 field workers have been severely dissatisfied with working conditions.<ref name="doublystruck" /> They complain of both suffering from the ongoing pandemic and from the financial impact of missing work.<ref name="doublystruck">{{cite journal |year=2021 |first=Ricardo |last=Vela |journal=Nuestra Comunidad |publisher=[[University of California, Agriculture and Natural Resources]] |url=https://ucanr.edu/blogs/blogcore/postdetail.cfm?postnum=45894 |title=Field workers doubly struck by the pandemic}}</ref>

The {{visible anchor|California Strawberry Scholarship Program|California Strawberry Growers' Fund}} is operated by the California Strawberry Growers' Fund.<ref name="scholarshipsstraw" /> {{As of|2022}} it has awarded over $2 million for the [[schooling]] of strawberry pickers' children.<ref name="scholarshipsstraw">{{Cite web |access-date=November 6, 2022 |year=2022 |website=[[University of California, Riverside School of Medicine Student Affairs]] |url=https://somsa.ucr.edu/outside-scholarships-pathway-students |title=Outside Scholarships for Pathway Students}}</ref> The {{visible anchor|California Table Grape Growers}} have a similar program.<ref name="scholarshipsgr">{{cite news |access-date=November 6, 2022 |year=2022 |work=ABC 30 |publisher=[[KFSN-TV Fresno]] |location=[[Fresno, California]] |last=Girardin |first=Shayla |title=CA Table Grape Growers offers scholarship to farm workers, families, students interested in ag |url=https://abc30.com/ag-scholarships-california-table-grape-growers-agriculture-school-funding-higher-education-central-valley/12357753/}}</ref>

Billikopf has repeatedly (Billikopf 1999, Billikopf 2001) found that improved [[working conditions]] improve [[worker productivity]] of strawberry pickers.<ref name="trendsflorida">{{cite journal |year=2018 |issue=1 |volume=7 |first2=Zhengfei |first1=Fritz |last2=Guan |last1=Roka |journal=[[International Journal of Agricultural Management]] |issn=2047-3710 |pages=79–87 |doi=10.22004/ag.econ.292479 |publisher=[[International Farm Management Association]] and [[Institute of Agricultural Management]] |title=Farm labor management trends in Florida, USA – challenges and opportunities |url=https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/292479}}</ref>

Demand for workers in grape cultivation is greatest from late June to early November for the [[San Joaquin Valley]], and mid-May to early July for the [[Coachella Valley]].<ref name="Harv">{{cite web |access-date=November 15, 2022 |date=July 2015 |id=3448 |publisher=[[University of California Division of Agriculture and Natural Resources]] |url=https://www2.ipm.ucanr.edu/agriculture/grape/table-grapes-harvest/ |title=Agriculture: Grape Pest Management Guidelines: Harvest}}</ref>

The {{visible anchor|Indigenous Farmworker Study}} is a program of the [[Indigenous Program of California Rural Legal Assistance]] which collects information on natives of Mexico employed in agriculture here.<ref name="IFS">{{Cite web |access-date=2023-03-07 |title=IFS |website=[[Indigenous Farmworker Study]] |url=http://www.indigenousfarmworkers.org/}}</ref>

Enforcement of labor laws has had little success in improving working conditions.<ref>{{cite web |access-date=2023-04-14 |work=Changing Face |author=Migration Program [[University of California, Davis]] |url=https://migration.ucdavis.edu/cf/more.php?id=174 |title=Hired Workers on California Farms}}</ref>

Richards 2018 finds chronic [[labor shortage]] in some sectors.<ref name="Reform-Markets" >
*{{cite journal |issue=2 |date=2020 |volume=68 |publisher=[[John Wiley & Sons, Inc.]] |last1=Richards |first1=Timothy |last2=Rickard |first2=Bradley |pages=189–194 |title=COVID-19 impact on fruit and vegetable markets |journal=[[Canadian Journal of Agricultural Economics]] |issn=0008-3976 |doi=10.1111/cjag.12231 |bibcode=2020CaJAE..68..189R |s2cid=218797224|doi-access=free }}
*{{cite journal |year=2021 |publisher=[[Elsevier BV]] |volume=188 |last1=Weersink |first1=Alfons |last2=von Massow |first2=Mike |last3=Bannon |first3=Nicholas |last4=Ifft |first4=Jennifer |last5=Maples |first5=Josh |last6=McEwan |first6=Ken |last7=McKendree |first7=Melissa G.S. |last8=Nicholson |first8=Charles |last9=Novakovic |first9=Andrew |last10=Rangarajan |first10=Anusuya |last11=Richards |first11=Timothy |last12=Rickard |first12=Bradley |last13=Rude |first13=James |last14=Schipanski |first14=Meagan |last15=Schnitkey |first15=Gary |last16=Schulz |first16=Lee |last17=Schuurman |first17=Daniel |last18=Schwartzkopf-Genswein |first18=Karen |last19=Stephenson |first19=Mark |last20=Thompson |first20=Jada |last21=Wood |first21=Katie |title=COVID-19 and the agri-food system in the United States and Canada |journal=[[Agricultural Systems]] |issn=0308-521X |doi=10.1016/j.agsy.2020.103039 |page=103039 |pmid=33362333 |pmc=7755574|bibcode=2021AgSys.18803039W }}
These reviews cite this research.
*{{cite journal |issue=4 |volume=100 |date=2018 |publisher=[[John Wiley & Sons, Inc.]] |last=Richards |first=Timothy |pages=1050–1071 |title=Immigration Reform and Farm Labor Markets |url=https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/274165/files/Abstracts_18_05_03_08_25_06_05__68_230_127_173_0.pdf |journal=[[American Journal of Agricultural Economics]] |issn=0002-9092 |eissn=1467-8276 |doi=10.1093/ajae/aay027}}</ref>

Goodhue et al. 2011 find Spotted Wing Drosophila imposes high [[labor cost]]s in strawberry and raspberry.<ref name="Analysis" >
*{{cite journal |date=2012 |last1=Cini |first1=A. |last2=Ioriatti |first2=C. |last3=Anfora |first3=G. |url=http://www.bulletinofinsectology.org/pdfarticles/vol65-2012-149-160cini.pdf |s2cid=16948426 |journal=[[Bulletin of Insectology]] |title=A review of the invasion of ''Drosophila suzukii'' in Europe and a draft research agenda for integrated pest management}}
*{{cite journal |date=2015 |issue=3 |publisher=[[Springer Science and Business Media LLC]] |volume=88 |last1=Asplen |first1=Mark |last2=Anfora |first2=Gianfranco |last3=Biondi |first3=Antonio |last4=Choi |first4=Deuk-Soo |last5=Chu |first5=Dong |last6=Daane |first6=Kent |last7=Gibert |first7=Patricia |last8=Gutierrez |first8=Andrew |last9=Hoelmer |first9=Kim |last10=Hutchison |first10=William D. |last11=Isaacs |first11=Rufus |last12=Jiang |first12=Zhi-Lin |last13=Karpati |first13=Zsolt |last14=Kimura |first14=Masahito |last15=Pascual |first15=Marta |last16=Philips |first16=Christopher |last17=Plantamp |first17=Christophe |last18=Ponti |first18=Luigi |last19=Vetek |first19=Gabor |last20=Vogt |first20=Heidrun |last21=Walton |first21=Vaughn |last22=Yu |first22=Yi |last23=Zappalà |first23=Lucia |last24=Desneux |first24=Nicolas |pages=469–494 |url=https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10340-015-0681-z |title=Invasion biology of spotted wing Drosophila (''Drosophila suzukii''): a global perspective and future priorities |journal=[[Journal of Pest Science]] |doi=10.1007/s10340-015-0681-z |bibcode=2015JPesS..88..469A |issn=1612-4758 |s2cid=14337743}}
These reviews cite this research.
*{{cite journal |date=2011 |issue=11 |volume=67 |publisher=[[John Wiley & Sons, Inc.]] |last1=Goodhue |first1=Rachael |last2=Bolda |first2=Mark |last3=Farnsworth |first3=Derek |last4=Williams |first4=Jeffrey |last5=Zalom |first5=Frank |title=Spotted wing drosophila infestation of California strawberries and raspberries: economic analysis of potential revenue losses and control costs |journal=[[Pest Management Science]] |issn=1526-498X |pages=1396–1402 |doi=10.1002/ps.2259 |pmid=21815244|doi-access=free }}
</ref>

Guthman 2017 finds many strawberry growers advocate for [[soil fumigant]]s as a way to maintain employment for strawberry field workers.<ref name="Agency" >
*{{cite journal |date=2019 |issue=6 |volume=44 |publisher=[[SAGE Publications]] |last=Strauss |first=Kendra |title=Labour geography III: Precarity, racial capitalisms and infrastructure |journal=[[Progress in Human Geography]] |issn=0309-1325 |doi=10.1177/0309132519895308 |pages=1212–1224 |s2cid=213279174}}
*{{cite journal |year=2018 |volume=1 |issue=1–2 |publisher=[[SAGE Publications]] |last=Williams |first=Brian |title="That we may live": Pesticides, plantations, and environmental racism in the United States South |journal=[[Environment and Planning E: Nature and Space]] |issn=2514-8486 |doi=10.1177/2514848618778085 |pages=243–267 |bibcode=2018EnPlE...1..243W |s2cid=158083649}}
These reviews cite this research.
*{{cite journal |last=Guthman |first=Julie |title=Paradoxes of the Border: Labor Shortages and Farmworker Minor Agency in Reworking California's Strawberry Fields |journal=[[Economic Geography]] |publisher=[[Taylor & Francis]] |volume=93 |issue=1 |date=2016 |issn=0013-0095 |doi=10.1080/00130095.2016.1180241 |pages=24–43 |s2cid=157028737}}
</ref>

The [[2022–2023 California floods]] devastated strawberry, other berries and greens cultivation areas, and impacted worker housing.<ref name="flood">{{Cite news |access-date=2023-04-19 |date=2023-03-27 |newspaper=[[The Guardian]] |last=Singh |first=Maanvi |url=https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2023/mar/27/california-farm-workers-pajaro-california-flooding |title=They grow America's strawberries. A vicious flood made them climate migrants}}</ref>

===Unions===
In 2021, the [[Supreme Court of the United States]] under ''[[Cedar Point Nursery v. Hassid]]'' struck down the right of organizers to enter California farms outside of working hours to unionize workers.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Totenberg |first1=Nina |last2=Singerman |first2=Eric |title=Supreme Court Hands Farmworkers Union A Major Loss |url=https://www.npr.org/2021/06/23/1000129827/in-a-narrow-ruling-supreme-court-hands-farmworkers-union-a-loss |access-date=30 April 2024 |date=June 24, 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Liptak |first1=Adam |title=Supreme Court Rules Against Union Recruiting on California Farms |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2021/06/23/us/supreme-court-unions-farms-california.html |access-date=30 April 2024 |work=The New York Times |date=23 June 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Barnes |first1=Robert |title=Supreme Court strikes down Calif. regulation allowing union access to farmworkers on growers' land |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/courts_law/supreme-court-farm-union-california/2021/06/23/1c22fab2-d42a-11eb-a53a-3b5450fdca7a_story.html |access-date=30 April 2024 |newspaper=Washington Post |date=23 June 2021}}</ref>

===Protests===
{{incomplete list|date=April 2024}}
* In April 2024, over 100 [[farm worker]]s protested for better wages and working conditions, asking for a minimum of US$26/hr. In 2024, farmworkers in [[Santa Barbara County]] earned an average hourly wage of ~$17/hr.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Rodriguez |first1=Christina |title=Hundreds of Central Coast Farmworkers plan a day of action in Santa Maria |url=https://keyt.com/news/santa-maria-north-county/2024/04/28/hundreds-of-central-coast-farmworkers-plan-a-day-of-action-in-santa-maria/ |access-date=30 April 2024 |work=News Channel 3-12 |date=28 April 2024}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Farmworkers protest in Santa Maria, demand better wages and working conditions |url=https://calcoastnews.com/2024/04/farmworkers-protest-in-santa-maria-demand-better-wages-and-working-conditions/ |access-date=30 April 2024 |work=Cal Coast News |date=29 April 2024}}</ref>

==See also==

* [[Agriculture in the United States]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
* [https://www.cdfa.ca.gov/statistics/PDFs/2017-18AgReport.pdf California Agricultural Statistics Review 2017-2018] from the California Department of Food and Agriculture
* {{cite web |title=Home |website=[[UC Davis]] Cost Studies |date=February 28, 2022 |url=http://coststudies.ucdavis.edu/en/ |access-date=June 18, 2022 |archive-date=June 26, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220626000334/https://coststudies.ucdavis.edu/en/ |url-status=dead }}
* {{cite web |title=California Grown |website=[[California Grown]] |publisher=[[California Department of Food and Agriculture]] |date=April 20, 2020 |url=http://californiagrown.org/ |access-date=July 6, 2022}}

{{Agriculture in the United States}}

[[Category:Agriculture in California| ]]
[[Category:Agriculture in the United States by state or territory]]