View source for Action learning

{{Short description|Type of approach to problem solving}}
{{Distinguish|Active learning}}
{{tone|date=October 2015}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2020}}
'''Action Learning''' is an approach to [[problem solving]] that involves taking action and reflecting upon the results. This method is purported to help improve the problem-solving process and simplify the solutions developed as a result.<ref>Reynolds, M. (2011) "Reflective Practice: Origins and Interpretations". ''Action Learning: Research and Practice'', 8(1), 5–13</ref><ref>Revans, R. W. (1998) ''ABC of action learning''. London: Lemos and Crane</ref> The theory of Action Learning and its epistemological position were originally developed by [[Reg Revans]], who applied the method to support organizational and business development initiatives and improve on problem solving efforts.<ref>Revans, R. W. 1982. The origin and growth of action learning. Brickley, UK: Chartwell-Bratt.</ref>

Action Learning is effective in developing a number of individual leadership and team problem-solving skills,<ref>Michael Marquardt, Ng Choon Seng, and Helen Goodson. (2010). "Team Development via Action Learning", ''Advances in Developing Human Resources'', SAGE Publications, pp. 241–255</ref> and has become a component in many corporate and organizational leadership development programs. The strategy is advertised as being different from the "one size fits all" curricula that are characteristic of many training and development programs. 

==Overview==
Action Learning is ideologically a cycle of "doing" and "reflecting" stages.<ref>{{Cite web |last1=March 30 |first1=Sumit Sahni {{!}} |last2=Sahni |first2=2015 Sumit |date=2015-03-30 |title=Action Learning With Impact |url=https://www.harvardbusiness.org/action-learning-with-impact/ |access-date=2020-10-07 |website=Harvard Business Publishing |language=en-US}}</ref> In most forms of action learning, a coach is included and responsible for promoting and facilitating learning, as well as encouraging the team to be self-managing.

The Action Learning process includes: 

# An important and often complex problem
# A diverse problem-solving team
# An environment that promotes curiosity, inquiry, and reflection,
# A requirement that talk be converted into action and, ultimately, a solution,
# A collective commitment to learning.

==History and Development==
The action learning approach was originated by [[Reginald Revans|Reg Revans]].<ref>Boshyk, Y. and Dilworth, R.L. (eds) (2010). ''Action Learning: History and Evolution''. Basingstoke, U.K.: Palgrave</ref><ref>Denise O'Leary, Paul Coughlan, Clare Rigg and David Coghlan. (2017). "Turning to case studies as a mechanism for learning in action learning". ''Action Learning: Research and Practice'', 14, 1, (3)</ref> Formative influences for Revan included his time working as a physicist at the [[University of Cambridge]], wherein he noted the importance of each scientist describing their own ignorance, sharing experiences, and communally reflecting in order to learn.<ref>Trehan, Kiran and Pedler, Mike. Cultivating foresight and innovation in action learning: reflecting ourselves; reflection with others. ''Action Learning: Research and Practice''. Vol. 8, No. 1, 1–4. March 2011.</ref> Revan used these experiences to further develop the method in the 1940s while working for the [[United Kingdom]]'s [[National Coal Board]], where he encouraged managers to meet together in small groups to share their experiences and ask each other questions about what they saw and heard.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ils.salford.ac.uk/library/resources/special/revans.pdf|title=The Library – The Library – University of Salford, Manchester|first=University of Salford|last=Manchester|date=January 2003|website=www.ils.Salford.ac.uk|access-date=28 May 2017}}</ref> From these experiences Regev felt that conventional instructional methods were largely ineffective, and that individuals needed to be aware of their lack of relevant knowledge and be prepared to explore that ignorance with suitable questions and help from other people in similar positions.{{cn|date=May 2022}}<ref>{{Cite web |title=Reginald Revans: The Pioneer of Action Learning |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/315539814}}</ref>

== Formula ==
Revans makes the pedagogical approach of Action Learning more precise in the opening chapter of his book<ref name=":0">Revans, R. 1980. Action learning: New techniques for management. London: Blond & Briggs, Ltd.</ref> which describes that "learning" is the result of combining "programmed knowledge" and "questioning", frequently abbreviated by the formula: <math display="inline">L = P + Q</math>  

In this paradigm, "''questioning''" is intended to create insight into what people see, hear or feel, and may be divided into multiple categories of question, including [[Open-ended question|open]] and [[Closed-ended question|closed questions]]. Although ''questioning'' is considered the cornerstone of the method, more relaxed formulations have enabled Action Learning to gain use in many countries all over the world, including the United States, Canada, Latin America, the Middle East, Africa, and Asia-Pacific.<ref name=":0" />

The [[International Management Centres Association]] and [[Michael J. Marquardt|Michael Marquardt]] have both proposed an extension to this formula with the addition of ''R'' for "reflection": <math display="inline">L = P + Q + R</math>. 

This additional element emphasizes the point that "great questions" should evoke thoughtful reflections while considering the current problem, the desired goal, designing strategies, developing action or implementation plans, or executing action steps that are components of the implementation plan.<ref>Marquardt, M., Leonard, H. S., Freedman, A., & Hill, C. (2009). ''Action learning for developing leaders and organizations: Principles, strategies, and cases''. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.</ref>
== ''Questioning'' in Action Learning ==
Action Learning purports that one of the keys to effective problem solving is asking the 'right question'. When asked to the right people at the right time, these questions help obtaining the necessary information. The Action Learning process, which primarily uses a questioning approach, can be more helpful than offering advice because it assumes that each person has the capacity to find their own answers.

Action-based learning questions are questions that are based on the approach of action learning where one solves real-life problems that involve taking action and reflecting upon the results.<ref>Thalheimer, W. (2014). The Learning Benefits of Questions. Retrieved 11 August 2021, from https://www.worklearning.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/10/Learning-Benefits-of-Questions-2014-v2.0.pdf</ref> As opposed to asking a question to gain information, in Action Learning the purpose of questioning is to help someone else explore new options and perspectives, and reflect in order to make better decisions.

=== Types of questions ===

==== Closed questions ====
Closed questions do not allow the respondents to develop their response, generally by limiting respondents with a limited set of possible answers. Answers to closed questions are often [[monosyllabic]] words or short phrases, including "''yes''" and "''no''". 

While closed questions typically have simple answers, they should not be interpreted as simple questions. Closed questions can range widely in complexity, and may force the respondent to think significantly before answering. The purposes of closed questions include obtaining facts, initiating the conversation, and maintaining conversational control for the questioner.<blockquote>''Examples of closed questions:''
* "What is your name?"
* "What color is the sky today?"
* "When two quantities are dependent on each other, does an increase in one always leads to an increase in the other?"
</blockquote>

==== Open questions ====
Open questions allow the respondent to expand or explore in their response, and do not have a single correct response. In the framework of Action Learning, this gives the respondent the freedom to discover new ideas, consider different possibilities, and decide on the course of action which is right for them.

Open-ended questions are not always long, and shorter questions often have equal or greater impact than longer ones. When using the Action Learning approach, it is important to be aware of one's tone and language. The goal is usually to ask challenging questions, or to challenge the respondent's perspective. The purposes of open questions include encouraging discussion and reflection, expanding upon a closed question, and giving control of the conversation to the respondent.<blockquote>'''''Examples of open questions:'''''

* "Why do you think that might have happened?"
* "How did that make you feel?"
* "What problems do you think this strategy could cause?"
</blockquote>

==Use in organizations==
It is applied by using the Action Learning question method to support organizational development. Action Learning is practiced by a wide community of businesses, governments, non-profits, and educational institutions. Organizations may also use Action Learning in the virtual environment.<ref>Waddill, D. (2006). Action E-Learning: The impact of action learning on a management-level online course. Human Resource Development International 9(2): 1–15.</ref> This is a [[Cost-effectiveness analysis|cost-effective]] solution that enables the widespread use of Action Learning at all levels of an organization. Action e-Learning provides a viable alternative for organizations interested in adapting the action learning process for online delivery with groups where the members are not co-located.<ref>Waddill, D. (2004). Action E-Learning: The Impact of Action Learning on the Effectiveness of a Management-Level Web-Based Instruction Course. Ann Arbor, Michigan, UMI.</ref>

Robert Kramer pioneered the use of Action Learning for officials in the [[Federal government of the United States|United States government]], and at the [[European Commission]] in [[Brussels]] and [[Luxembourg]]. He also introduced Action Learning to scientists at the [[European Environment Agency]] in [[Copenhagen]], to officials of the [[Government of Estonia|Estonian government]] at the [[State Chancellery of Estonia|State Chancellery]] in [[Tallinn]], [[Estonia]], and to students of [[Communication studies|communication]] and [[Media studies|media]] studies at [[Corvinus University of Budapest|Corvinus University]] of [[Budapest]].<ref>{{Unbulleted list citebundle|Kramer, R. 2008. Learning How to Learn: Action Learning for Leadership Development. A chapter in Rick Morse (Ed.) Innovations in Public Leadership Development. Washington DC: M.E. Sharpe and National Academy of Public Administration, pp.&nbsp;296–326.|Kramer, R. 2007a. Leading Change Through Action Learning. ''The Public Manager,'' 36 (3): 38–44.|Kramer, R. 2007b. How Might Action Learning Be Used to Develop the Emotional Intelligence and Leadership Capacity of Public Administrators? ''Journal of Public Affairs Education,'' 13 (2): 205–230.}}</ref>

==Models of Action Learning==
The influence of Revans's Action Learning Formula can be seen today in many leadership and organization development initiatives in corporate training and executive education institutes. Since the 1940s, several developments to Revan's original training model have been created. As with other pedagogical approaches, practitioners have built on Revans' original work and adapted tenets to accommodate their specific needs. 

=== Action Reflection Learning and the MiL model ===
One such branch of Action Learning is Action Reflection Learning (ARL), which originated in [[Sweden]] among educators and consultants under the guidance of Lennart Rohlin of the [[MiL Institute]] in the 1970s. Using the "MiL model," ARL gained momentum in the field of Leadership in International Management. 

The main differences between Revans' approach to action learning and the 'MiL Model' in the 1980s are:
# The role of a project team advisor (later called Learning Coach),
# The use of "team projects" rather than individual challenges,
# The duration of the sessions, which is more flexible in ARL designs.

The MiL model and ARL evolved as practitioners responded to diverse needs and restrictions—MiL practitioners varied the number and duration of the sessions, the type of project selected, the role of the Learning Coach and the style of their interventions. In 2004, Isabel Rimanoczy researched and codified the ARL methodology, identifying 16 elements and 10 underlying principles.

=== The World Institute for Action Learning model ===
The World Institute for Action Learning (WIAL) model was developed by Michael Marquardt, Skipton Leonard, Bea Carson and Arthur Freedman. The model starts with two simple "[[ground rules]]" that ensure that statements are related to questions, and grant authority to the coach in order to promote learning. Team members may develop additional ground rules, norms, and roles as they deem necessary or advantageous. Addressing Revans' concern that a coach's over-involvement in the problem-solving process will engender dependency, WIAL coaches only ask questions that encourage team members to reflect on the team's behavior (what is working, can be improved, or done differently) in efforts to improve learning and, ultimately, performance.

=== Executive Action Learning (EAL) Model ===
The action learning model has evolved from an organizational development tool led by learning and development (L&D) managers to organizational alignment and performance tool led by executives, where CEOs and their executive teams facilitate action-learning sessions to align the organizational objectives at various organizational levels and departments. One such example is the Executive Action-Learning (EAL) Model which originated in the United States in 2005. 

The EAL model differs from the traditional organizational training methods by shifting the focus from professor-led, general knowledge memorization and presentations to executive-led and project-based experiential reflection and problem-solving as the major learning tool.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.iim.education/executive-journal/executive-action-learning.htm|title=Executive Action Learning (EAL) Model|publisher=Executive Education Journal - International Institute of Management}}</ref>

=="Unlearning" as a prerequisite for "learning"==
The process of learning more creative ways of thinking, feeling, and being is achieved in Action Learning by reflecting on what is working now and on actions that can be improved. Action Learning is consistent with the principles of [[positive psychology]] and [[appreciative inquiry]] by encouraging  team members to build on strengths and learn from challenges.<ref>Seligman, M.E. & Csikszentmihalyi, M.(2000). Positive psychology: An introduction. American Psychologist, 55, 1, 5–14.</ref><ref>Cooperrider, D.L. & Whitney, D (2001) A positive revolution in change. In Cooperrider, D. L. Sorenson, P., Whitney, D. & Yeager, T. (eds.) Appreciative Inquiry: An Emerging Direction for Organization Development (9–29). Champaign, IL: Stipes.</ref> In Action Learning, reflecting on what has and has not worked helps team members unlearn what doesn't work and develop new and improved ways to increase productivity moving forward.<ref>{{Cite book|title=International Encyclopedia of Organization Studies|last1=Clegg|first1=Stewart|last2=Bailey|first2=James|date=2008|publisher=SAGE Publications, Inc.|isbn=978-1-4129-1515-1|location=Thousand Oaks, California|doi=10.4135/9781412956246}}</ref>

Robert Kramer applies the [[theory of art]], [[creativity]] and "unlearning" of the psychologist [[Otto Rank]] to his practice of Action Learning. In Kramer's work, Action Learning questions allow group members to "step out of the frame of the prevailing ideology,"<ref name="Rank 1932/1989">Rank, O. 1932/1989. Art and Artist: Creative Urge and Personality Development. W.W. Norton.</ref> reflect on their assumptions and beliefs, and re-frame their choices. Through the lens of Otto Rank's work on understanding art and artists, Action Learning can be seen as the never-completed process of learning how to "step out of the frame" of the ruling mindset, and learning how to unlearn.<!-- check for plagiarism -->

==Role of Facilitator in Action Learning==
An ongoing challenge of Action Learning has been to take productive action as well as to take the time necessary to capture the learning that result from reflecting on the results of taking action. Usually, the urgency of the problem or task decreases or eliminates the reflective time necessary for learning. As a consequence, more and more organizations have recognized the critical importance of an Action Learning coach or facilitator in the process, someone who has the authority and responsibility of creating time and space for the group to learn at the individual, group and organizational level.

There is controversy, however, about the need for an Action Learning coach. Revans was skeptical about the use of learning coaches and, in general, of interventionist approaches. He believed the Action Learning set Action Learning on its own. He also had a major concern that too much process facilitation would lead a group to become dependent on a coach or facilitator. Nevertheless, later in his development of the Action Learning method, Revans experimented with including a role that he described as a "supernumerary" that had many similarities to that of a facilitator or coach.<ref name="Revans 2011">Revans, R. W. 2011. ABC's of action learning. Burlington, VT: Gower.</ref>{{rp|9}} Pedler distills Revans' thinking about the key role of the action learning facilitator as follows:<blockquote>(i) The initiator or "accoucheur": "No organisation is likely to embrace action learning unless there is some person within it ready to fight on its behalf. ...This useful intermediary we may call the accoucheur—the managerial midwife who sees that their organisation gives birth to a new idea...".

(ii) The set facilitator or "combiner":
"there may be a need when it (the set) is first formed for some supernumerary
brought into speed the integration of the set ...." but "Such a combiner ...must contrive that it (the set) achieves independence of them at the earliest possible moment...".

(iii) The facilitator of organizational learning or the "learning community" organiser:
"The most precious asset of any organization is the one most readily overlooked: its capacity to build upon its lived experience, to learn from its challenges and to turn in a better performance by inviting all and sundry to work out for themselves what that performance ought to be."<ref name="Revans 2011" /></blockquote>Hale suggested that the facilitator role developed by Revans be incorporated into any standards for Action Learning facilitation accreditation.<ref name="Revans 2011" /><ref>{{Unbulleted list citebundle|Hale, R.I. 2003a How Training Can Add More Value to the Business, part 1, Industrial and Commercial Training, Volume 35, No. 1, pp.&nbsp;29–32.|Hale, R.I. 2003b. How Training Can Add More Value to the Business, part 2, Industrial and Commercial Training, Volume 35, No. 2, pp.&nbsp;49–52.|Hale, R.I., Adding Real Value With Work Based Learning Questions, Training Journal, 2004, July, pp.&nbsp;34–39.}}</ref> Hale also suggests the Action Learning facilitator role includes the functions of mobilizer, learning set adviser, and learning catalyst.<ref>Hale, R.I., 2012. Bright Horizons for Action Learning, Training Journal, July.</ref> To increase the reflective, learning aspect of Action Learning, many groups now adopt the practice or norm of focusing on questions rather than statements while working on the problem and developing strategies and actions.

Self-managed action learning is a variant of Action Learning that dispenses with the need for a facilitator of the action learning set, including in [[Virtual workplace|virtual]] and [[Remote work|hybrid]] settings.<ref>Bourner, T., O'Hara, S., and Webber, T. 2002. "Learning to manage change in the Health Service", in: A. Brockbank, I.</ref><ref>O'Hara, S., Bourner, T. and Webber, T. 2004. Practice of self managed action learning. Action learning: research and practice,1(1): 29–42.</ref><ref>Shurville, S.J. and Rospigliosi, A. 2009. Implementing blended self-managed action learning for digital entrepreneurs in higher education. Action Learning: Research and Practice, Volume 6, Issue 1 March 2009, pages 53–61.</ref> There are a number of problems, however, with purely self-managed teams (i.e., with no coach). It has been noted that self-managing teams (such as task forces) seldom take the time to reflect on what they are doing or make efforts to identify key lessons learned from the process.<ref>Wellins, R.S., Byham, W.C., & Wilson, J.M. (1991). Empowered teams: Creating self-directed work teams that improve quality, production, and participation, San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.</ref> Without reflection, team members are likely to import organizational or sub-unit cultural norms and familiar problem solving practices into the problem-solving process without explicitly testing their validity and utility. Team members employ assumptions, mental models, and beliefs about methods or processes that are seldom openly challenged, much less tested. As a result, teams often apply traditional problem solving methods to non-traditional, urgent, critical, and discontinuous problems. In addition, team members often "leap" from the initial problem statement to some form of brainstorming that they assume will produce a viable solution. These suggested solutions typically provoke objections, doubts, concerns, or reservations from other team members who advocate their own preferred solutions. The conflicts that ensue are generally both unproductive and time-consuming. As a result, self-managed teams, tend to split or fragment rather than develop into a cohesive, high-performing team.

Because of these typical characteristics of self-managing teams, many theorists and practitioners have argued that real and effective self-management in action learning requires coaches with the authority to intervene whenever they perceive an opportunity to promote learning or improve team performance.<ref>[[cf.]] Marquardt, M.J., Leonard, S., Freedman, A., and Hill, C. 2009. Action learning for developing leaders and organizations. Washington, DC: American Psychological Press.</ref> Without this facilitator role, there is no assurance that the team will make the time needed for the periodic, systemic, and strategic inquiry and reflection that is necessary for effective individual, team, and organizational learning.

==Organizations and Community==
A number of organizations sponsor events focusing on the implementation and improvement of Action Learning, including ''The Journal of Action Learning: Research & Practice'', the World Institute of Action Learning Global Forum, the Global Forum on Executive Development and Business Driven Action Learning, and the Action Learning, Action Research Association World Congress.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.wial.org|title=World Institute for Action Learning|website=WIAL|access-date=28 May 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.globalforum-actionlearning.com|title=Global Forum – Action Learning (homepage) |publisher=Global Executive Learning |access-date=28 May 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |title=[Homepage] |url=http://www.tandfonline.com/toc/calr20/current |journal=Action Learning: Research and Practice |volume=14 |issue=2 |access-date=28 May 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.alara.net.au|title=Welcome to ALARA |publisher=ALARA|access-date=28 May 2017}}</ref> There are also [[LinkedIn]] [[Special interest group|interest groups]] devoted to Action Learning include WIAL Network, Action Learning Forum, International Foundation for Action Learning, Global Forum on Business Driven Action Learning and Executive Development, Learning Thru Action, and Action Research and Learning in Organizations.

==See also==
* [[Action research]]
* [[Action teaching]]
* {{slink|Chris Argyris#Action science}}
* [[Experiential learning]]
* [[Inquiry-based learning]]
* [[Large-group capacitation]]
* [[Learning cycle]]

==Notes==
{{reflist}}

==Further reading==
{{further reading cleanup|date=February 2022}}
{{refbegin|colwidth=30em}}
* Boshyk, Yury, and Dilworth, Robert L. 2010. Action Learning and its Applications. Basingstoke, UK: Macmillan.
* Boshyk, Yury. 2000. Business Driven Action Learning: Global Best Practices. Basingstoke, UK: Macmillan.
* Carrington, L. House Proud: Action Learning is Paying Dividends at Building Firm, People Management, 5 December 2002, pp 36–38.
* Chambers, A. and Hale, R. 2007. Keep Walking: Leadership Learning in Action, MX Publishing; 2nd edition (9 November 2009), UK.
* Collingham, B., Critten, P., Garnett, J. and Hale, R. (2007) A Partnership Approach to Developing and Accrediting Work Based Learning – Creating Successful Work Based Learning – Meeting the Skills Challenge for Performance Improvement, Inaugural Conference, British Institute for Learning and Development, Royal Society of Medicine, London 17 May 2007.
* Critten, P. & Hale, R. (2006) 'From Work Based/ Action learning to Action Research – Towards a Methodology for the Worker/ Practitioner researcher' The Work-based Learning Network of the Universities Association for Life-Long learning Annual Conference: 'Work Based Projects: The Worker as Researcher 24–25 April 2006 University of Northampton.
* Dilworth, R. L., and Willis, V. 2003. Action Learning: Images and Pathways.
* Freedman, A.M. & Leonard, H.S. 2013. Leading organizational change using action learning: What leaders should know before committing to a consulting contract. Reston, VA: Learning Thru Action Press.
* Kozubska, J & MacKenzie, B 2012. Differences and impact through action learning, Action Learning Research & Practice, 9 2, 1450164.
* McGill & N. Beech (Eds) Reflective learning in practice, Aldershot, Gower.
* Marquardt, M. J. 1999. Action learning in action. Palo Alto, CA:Davies-Black.
* Marquardt, M.J. & Roland Yeo (2012). Breakthrough Problem Solving with Action Learning: Concepts and Cases. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.
* O'Neil, J. and Marsick, V.J. 2007. Understanding Action Learning. NY: AMACOM Publishing
* Pedler, M., (Ed.). 1991. Action learning in practice (2nd ed.). Aldershot, UK: Gower.
* Pedler, M. 1996. Action learning for managers. London: Lemos and Crane.
* Raelin, J. A. 2000. Work-based learning: The new frontier of management development. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.
* Rimanoczy, I., and Turner, E. 2008. Action Reflection Learning: solving real business problems by connecting learning with earning. US, Davies-Black Publishing.
* Rohlin, L., Turner, E. and others. 2002. Earning while Learning in Global Leadership: the Volvo MiL Partnership. Sweden, MiL Publishers AB.
* Smith, S. & Smith, L. (2017) Assessing the value of action learning for social enterprises and charities. Action Learning: Research and Practice (14)3: 230-242
* Sawchuk, P. H. 2003. Adult learning and technology in working class life. New York: Cambridge University Press.
{{refend}}

==External links==
*{{Wikiversity-inline|Storytelling}}

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